The 
Expense -Proof Farm 



PUBLISHED BY THE 

LEHIGH PORTLAND CEMENT CO. 

ALLENTOWN, PA. 
CHICAGO, ELL. SPOKANE, WN. 






Copyright, 1915, by the Lehigh Portland Cement Co. 



CLA416210 . 



wn\f -; 1915 j \ 



Jh 



Table of Contents 



PAGE 

General Instructions 9-17 

Theory of Concrete 9 

Sand 10 

Stone and Gravel 10 

Table of Proportions 11 

Water 11 

Tools 12 

Mixing 12-13 

Placing 13 

Forms 14 

Reinforcing 15 

Cold Weather Work 15 

Concrete About the House 18-35 

Foundations 18 

Foundation Gutters 19 

Floors 19-20 

Porches 21 

Steps 22-23 

Cellar Hatchways 24-25 

Fireplaces 26 

Chimneys 26 

Chimney Caps 27 

Gutters 27 

Cisterns 27-30 

Septic Tanks 30 

Well Platforms 31 

Greenhouses 32 

Mushroom Cellar 33 

Bee Cellar 33 

Window Boxes 34 

Stucco 34 

Terrazzo Floors 35 

About the Yard and Garden 36-61 

Driveways 36 

Alleyways 37 

Sidewalks 37 

Benches 38 

. Fence Posts 40-43 

Gate Posts 43 

Hitching Posts 44 

Clothes Poles 45 

Lamp Posts 46 

Horse Blocks and Curb Steps 46 

Retaining Wall 47 

Hotbeds and Cold Frames 48 

Well Curbs 49 

Ice Houses 50 

Garage , 51 

Storage or Root Cellar 52-53 

Land Rollers 54 

Tree Surgery 55 

Windmill Foundation 56 

5 



PAGE 

Swimming Pools 57-59 

Lily Ponds 59 

Washing Floors 60 

Laundry 60 

Garbage and Refuse Burners 61 

Concrete Around the Stock 62-81 

Dairy Barn 63 

Barn Floors 64 

Feedway 65 

Manger 65 

Stall 65 

Alleyways 66 

Gutters 66 

Lighting 66 

Ventilation . 66 

Manure Pits 67 

Feeding Floors 68 

Dipping Vats or Tanks 69-72 

Milk or Dairy House 73 

Milk-cooling Tanks 75-76 

Watering Troughs : 77 

Hog Houses 79 

Hog Wallows 79-80 

Feeding Troughs 81 

Concrete Comfort for Poultry 82-85 

Poultry Houses 82 

Nests 84 

Drinking Fountain 85 

Duck Pond 85 

Other Construction Work on or Around the Farm 86-91 

Culverts 86 

Small Bridges 88 

Small Dams 89 

Bulkheads 89 

Small Piers 89 

Hydraulic Ram House 90 

Smoke-house 90 

Drain Tile 91 



Foreword 

Five reprintings of our original farm construc- 
tion book have convinced us that there is a very 
real demand for a book describing the simple 
forms of concrete construction which a farmer 
or home-owner can handle himself. 

Although new uses for concrete are constantly 
turning up, and will continue to do so, the general 
rules of construction laid down herein should 
enable any careful workman to handle what 
simple construction work he wishes, and to 
develop any new uses the nature of this material 
makes possible. 

The sources from which we obtained much of 
the information contained in this book are so 
numerous and so varied that we simply take this 
opportunity for a general acknowledgment of 
our indebtedness to all our many friends. 



The 
EXPENSE -PROOF FARM 



General Instructions for the Handling and 
Placing of Concrete 

The theory of a perfect concrete mix is — as many cubic yards of pebbles 
or crushed stone as there will be in the finished work, with as many cubic 
yards of sand as will fill all the voids or open spaces in the pebbles or crushed 
stone, and sufficient cement to fill all the voids in the sand, with a slight 
excess. The purpose of the sand, therefore, is simply to serve as a filler, 
and of the cement simply to serve as a binder. 

Many people, offhand, would consider that a 1:2:4 mix would approxi- 
mate a mix of one part cement and six parts gravel. But they forget that 
the ordinary bank-run gravel already has its voids filled with small aggre- 
gate, so that a mix of one part cement to six parts gravel approximates a 
1:3:6 mix if the gravel be well proportioned. However, it is impossible 
by ordinary inspection to tell in exactly what proportions the aggregates 
are mixed, so that the only safe way is to grade out the aggregates or gravel 
by means of screens to the proper size before using. Otherwise your gravel 
is as apt to be four parts sand to five of stone, as it is three of sand to six of 
stone. 

If the gravel be so graded, there is no objection to its use in place of 
crushed stone. In fact, recent experiments show that concrete made of 
well-graded pebbles and coarse sand with rounded edges attains greater 
density, and consequently greater strength, than stone and sand of the same 
quality but with broken, sharp edges. This disproves the early impression 
that it was necessary for the sand to be sharp and the stone to be more or 
less broken. 

Since the purpose of the cement is that of a binder, it follows that the 
sand and stone must bear their share of the stress to be borne by the entire 
mass. This makes it essential that they be of good quality, and not of a 
weak, crumbly nature. The nature of the work, of course, determines just 
what class of aggregate may be satisfactory. 

For instance, cinder aggregate, which is not sufficiently strong for many 
classes of concrete work, gives very good results in fireplaces. 

Local conditions also largely determine just what class of aggregate to 
use. As a general rule, there should be absolutely no foreign matter in 
either the sand or the stone. The reasons for this are : first, that the foreign 



matter takes up space which should be filled by the sand or stone, and so 
makes weak spots in the concrete, and, second, that it coats over the sand 
or stone and so prevents a perfect bond between it and the cement. 

Sand. — There are two simple methods of testing sand. The simplest is 
to rub a small quantity between your hands. Loam or clay will show its 
presence by soiling the hands. A second method is to fill a fruit- jar to the 
depth of four inches with sand, then fill with water to within an inch of the 
top, shake well, and allow to stand for a couple of hours. The sand will 
sink to the bottom, while any mud or clay will settle on top of the sand. 
There should not be more than one-quarter of an inch of such sediment. 
If a half -inch or more is found, the sand should be washed, provided it is 
impossible to obtain cleaner sand. 

For washing the sand, place it on an inclined board platform of from 10 
to 15 feet in length, raised a foot to a foot and a half at one end. At the 
lower end nail a six-inch board to hold the sand, which is spread over the 
platform three to four inches deep. Side boards will also be required on the 
platform to keep the sand from washing over the edges. A stream of water 
running from the upper end through the sand and over the base-board will 
cleanse it. 

The sand should not be too fine. If it is more convenient to use fine than 
coarse sand, obtain an equal amount of the coarse to mix with the fine. 
When it is impossible to obtain a coarse sand, the amount of cement used 
must be doubled. 

Stone or Gravel. — Any aggregate which cannot pass through a quarter- 
inch screen is called coarse aggregate, stone, or pebbles. Any passing 
through such a screen is called fine aggregate or sand. It is just as essential 
that the coarse aggregate be clean as that the sand be clean. For cleansing 
it, where necessary, the same method may be used as outlined for sand. In 
crushed stone a small amount of dust is permissible, but a proportionately 
smaller amount of sand should be used. 

Best results are obtained with a mixture graded from small to large, as 
the mass is then more compact and so gives a denser concrete. Less sand 
is also required with such a mix. 

It must be remembered that the cement does not give strength to the 
aggregates it unites, but simply binds them together. You, therefore, 
cannot expect the same strength from a cinder concrete that you will have 
from one made of granite. Granite, hard limestone, trap-rock, and hard 




1. Sand-washing board constructed of inch lumber. The slope in this board should be in the 

ratio of one to ten. 

10 



gravel give the best results. Soft sandstones and limestones, slate, and 
shale should be avoided. 

The proportions of cement, sand, and stone vary according to the class of 
work and according to the quality of the sand and stone. The following 
table gives a variety of proportions showing the amount of each material re- 
quired per cubic yard of rammed concrete: 

AMOUNT OF CEMENT, SAND AND STONE, OR GRAVEL REQUIRED PER CUBIC 

YARD OF RAMMED CONCRETE 

Cement in Barbels (4 Sacks to the Barrel), Sand and Stone in Cubic Yards 





Stone 1 Inch 


AND 


Stone %Yi Inches 


Stone 2}/£ Inches 


Three 


-quarter Inch 




under, Dust 


AND 1 


jnder, Dust 


Most 


Small Stone 


Gravel, Sa 


ND 




Screened Out 


Screened Out 


Screened Out 


Screened Out 


Mixes 




























Ce- 
ment 


Sand 


Stone 


Ce- 
ment 


Sand 


Stone 


Ce- 
ment 


Sand 


Stone 


Ce- 
ment 


Sand 


Stone 


l:iy 2 :3 


1.85 


0.42 


0.84 


1.90 


0.43 


0.87 


1.96 


0.45 


0.89 


1.71 


0.39 


0.78 


1:2:4 .... 


1.46 


0.44 


0.89 


1.48 


0.45 


0.90 


1.53 


0.47 


0.93 


1.34 


0.41 


0.81 


1:2^:4 • . 


1.35 


0.52 


0.82 


1.38 


0.53 


0.84 


1.42 


0.54 


0.87 


1.24 


0.47 


0.75 


i:2y 2 -Ay 2 


1.27 


0.48 


0.87 


1.29 


0.49 


0.88 


1.33 


0.51 


0.91 


1.16 


0.44 


0.80 


1:2:5 .... 


1.27 


0.39 


0.97 


1.29 


0.39 


0.98 


1.33 


0.39 


1.03 


1.17 


0.36 


0.89 


1:2^:5 . . 


1.19 


0.46 


0.91 


1.21 


0.46 


0.92 


1.26 


0.48 


0.96 


1.10 


0.42 


0.83 


1:3:5 . .. . 


1.11 


0.51 


0.85 


1.14 


0.52 


0.87 


1.17 


0.54 


0.89 


1.03 


0.47 


0.78 


1:33^:53^ 


1.00 


0.53 


0.84 


1.02 


0.54 


0.85 


1.06 


0.56 


0.89 


0.92 


0.48 


0.78 


1:3:6 .... 


1.01 


0.46 


0.92 


1.02 


0.47 


0.93 


1.06 


0.48 


0.97 


0.92 


0.42 


0.84 


1:3^:6.. 


0.95 


0.50 


0.87 


0.97 


0.51 


0.89 


1.00 


0.53 


0.92 


0.88 


0.46 


0.80 


1:3:7 .... 


0.91 


0.42 


0.97 


0.92 


0.42 


0.98 


0.94 


0.42 


1.05 


0.84 


0.38 


0.89 


1:3^:7.. 


0.87 


0.47 


0.93 


0.89 


0.47 


0.95 


0.91 


0.49 


0.98 


0.80 


0.43 


0.85 


1:4:7 .... 


0.83 


0.51 


0.89 


0.84 


0.51 


0.90 


0.87 


0.53 


0.93 


0.77 


0.47 


0.81 


1:4:73^ .. 


0.80 


0.49 


0.91 


0.81 


0.50 


0.93 


0.84 


0.51 


0.96 


0.73 


0.44 


0.83 


1:4:8 


0.77 


0.47 


0.93 


0.78 


0.48 


0.95 


0.81 


0.49 


0.98 


0.71 


0.43 


0.86 



Water. — While such cases are uncommon, there have been some where 
the use of improper water has resulted in the failure of the concrete. The 
water must be clean and free from acids and alkalis. It may be kept in a 
barrel by the mixing board and placed on the concrete with a bucket. In 
cold weather it must be kept warm and free from icicles. 

As the amount of water required varies with the nature of the sand used, 
it is impossible to lay down any set rules as to quantity. The cement 
worker soon learns what amount is best for the aggregate he has in hand. 

Cement. — One item which the average cement user neglects, often to his 
own loss, is the proper protection of the cement prior to its use. 

If it is to stand in a building for any length of time, it should be piled on 
boards raised above the floor on wooden blocks or two by fours. It should 
never be piled directly on the ground nor against the outside walls of build- 
ings. 

When exposed to moisture, the cement sets, and, after once having ob- 
tained an actual set, becomes useless for mixing. It should, therefore, 
be covered if left outdoors overnight. 

What is sometimes mistaken for an actual set is what is known as a ware- 
house set, which is really not a set at all, but merely the compacting of the 
cement caused by pressure in the storehouse. Lumps caused in this way 
may be easily broken up with a blow from the back of a shovel. Such 

11 



cement is perfectly satisfactory to use, although the time taken in setting 
may sometimes be longer. 

The Tools. — The tools required in mixing concrete are few in number and 
easy to obtain if hand mixing is intended. But if any extensive concrete 
work be planned, it will be found economical and far more convenient to 
purchase some small mixing machine. The concrete, also, will be more 
uniform and better. 

For hand mixing there will be required : one shovel for each man on the 
job, two wheelbarrows with sheet-iron bodies, one spade, one rake, one 
water-barrel, one tamper, several water-buckets, a sand screen, and a 
mixing board. The sand screen should be between five and six feet in 
length and between two and a half and three feet in width. 

The mixing board should be about 10 feet square, made of one-inch sur- 
faced lumber free from knots, and tongued and grooved. The boards 
should be cleated on the under side every 18 inches, and be drawn close 
together so that no cement grout will run through while mixing. The 
board should be so placed that there will be plenty of room and that it also 
will be convenient to the piles of sand and stone. 

From the mixing board to the spot where the concrete is to be placed 
should be wheelbarrow runs made of boards at least 20 inches wide. Care 
to see that these are well laid will prove an actual economy in the work. 

Mixing. — The proportions used in mixing depend on the nature of the 
work contemplated, as well as the nature of the sand and stone used. 
Whenever the concrete worker is in doubt as to just what mix will best suit 
his purpose, this company, on receipt of samples of his aggregate, will be 
glad to advise him. 

The use of a measuring box for the sand and stone is imperative. What is 
probably an average mix of concrete is a 1:2:4 mix, using stone of about 
an inch size. The amounts required for one cubic yard of rammed concrete 
with this mix are 1.46 barrels of cement, 0.44 cubic yard of sand, and 0.89 
cubic yard of stone. 

For a two-sack batch of this mix the measuring box should measure 16 
inches deep, 18 inches wide, and 2 feet long, inside measurement. This 
filled once with sand and twice with stone will give with the two bags of 
cement the proper proportions. 

The measuring box is simply an ordinary box without a bottom, but with 
handles at each end for convenience. 

Sufficient sand for one batch is first measured out and spread over the 
mixing board to a depth of three or four inches. The cement is next 
spread as evenly as possible over the sand. The cement and sand are then 
shoveled until the mixture shows a uniform color, usually after the fourth 
turning. 

Next spread the mixture out as the sand was first spread, and measure the 
stone onto it. Add not quite the full quantity of water necessary to make 
the required medium consistence, shoveling the mass and adding the bal- 
ance of the water where dry spots show. After three turnings the mixture 
will usually show uniform, but where it does not, continue shoveling until 
the desired result is obtained. After the final turning it may be shoveled 
into a pile ready for placing. 

With a mixing machine much of the labor of hand mixing is eliminated, 
and the speed of the work greatly increased. 

12 



A word as to the various mixes to use for different purposes would not be 
amiss. 

The mixture of l:lj^:3 gives a very dense, strong, and waterproof 
concrete. It is, therefore, suitable for cisterns and tanks, roadways, stair- 
ways that receive incessant traffic, lintels, and all other work subjected to 
unusual stress, wear, or moisture exposure. 

A 1:2:4 mix, while not quite so strong as the 1:13^:3, still gives a 
concrete of quite high strength and waterproof ness. It is used in columns, 
beams, fence-posts, and much-used sidewalks. 

The 1:23^:4 mix is used for feeding floors, the body of mortar-surfaced 
blocks, ordinary walls of six-inch thickness or less, culverts, and work need- 
ing concrete of ordinary strength. 

A mix of 1 : 2J^ : 5 is suitable for foundations, retaining walls, and other 
walls thicker than six inches. 

Any mix in which the cement proportion is lower than those given is 
suitable for work only where mass and not strength is required. 

The proper proportions of cement, sand, and stone or pebbles for these 
various mixes is given on page 11. 

Placing. — Immediately after mixing the concrete should be placed in the 
forms. It may be either wheeled to position in wheelbarrows and dumped, 
or deposited in buckets. It should never, however, be dumped from a great 
height, as this causes the large and small aggregate to become separated 
and spoils the concrete. The ideal method of placing concrete is to pour it 
on in layers, each to be placed before the preceding one has thoroughly set. 

After placing, it should be tamped lightly until water shows on the sur- 
face and no stones are left uncovered by the mortar. The concrete should 
also be spaded with a narrow flat spade next to the forms, to work back the 
heavy aggregate, eliminate the air-pockets, and insure a smooth, even sur- 
face. The drier the mix, the more spading is required. Where the nar- 
rowness of the space between the forms prevents the use of a spade, a 
wooden "spader" may be made, to be used as in the sketch on page 14. 




Process of shoveling sand and stone in hand mixing. The ideal method is with each man 
shoveling half way but spreading the full distance of the beard. 



Whenever such a spader is used, the flat side should always be placed next 
the forms. 

Keep the concrete thoroughly wet and covered after placing for a period 
of from six to ten days. This is particularly necessary during the hot sum- 
mer months and on particularly windy days. The canvas, burlap, or straw 
with which the concrete is covered should also be kept wet. 

In winter weather it is necessary to protect the concrete from freezing, as 
well as from too rapid drying. This is taken up more at length under the 
heading of Winter Work. 

Forms.— Because of the fact that concrete is plastic and will take the 
shape of whatever it is placed against or in, it is essential that the forms 
used be absolutely rigid. Any material which will give the shape desired, 
maintain its position, and can be easily removed after the concrete has set, 
is suitable for forms. The forms must be strong enough to hold the weight 
of the concrete without bulging out of shape. They must, therefore, be 

well braced. Lumber which is 
free from knots and is smooth 
is best, although knot-holes and 
cracks can be remedied by tack- 
ing a board over the outside and 
filling with clay. 

Where a smooth finish is de- 
sired, metal forms are usually pre- 
ferred, being more easily kept 
clean and being more durable 
than those of other materials. 
Wood is probably more generally 
used, however, as being more 
easily obtained and less expen- 
sive in its first cost. For orna- 
mental work wax molds and molds 
of wet sand are used. As this book 
simply covers general construc- 
tion work, these classes of forms 
will not be discussed. 

Wliere wooden forms are used, 
it is best for convenience in han- 
dling to make them in sections. 
As often they will never be used 
again, however, the lumber should 
be cut or nailed to as small an ex- 
tent as is practicable. 

If the forms are to be used more 
than once, it is worth while to 
make them well, otherwise almost 
any boards can be utilized which 
have smooth surfaces and even 
edges. 

Cleaning the Forms. — After 

3. " Spading," showing how spader works back use > particles of concrete will stick 
larger aggregate. to the forms. To prevent this 

14 



§6fg 

woes 



mm 



give the surface next the concrete a coating of either soft soap, linseed oil, 
or black or cylinder oil. Kerosene should not be used. 

Before erecting the forms cover them with this coating and then protect 
from dust or dirt until erected. Upon removal, clean off all concrete ad- 
hering to the forms. This may be done with a short-handled hoe and a wire 
brush. Do not scrape the wood in cleaning, as this will render its surface 
uneven. Whenever spots free from the soft soap or oil appear on the form, 
put on another application of the oil or soap. 

All chips, blocks of wood, or other matter that fall inside in the forms 
should be carefully removed, as the presence of foreign matter of any 
nature is apt to weaken the concrete. 

Outside foundation forms where the earth is firm are ofttimes superflu- 
ous. 

Reinforcing. — Where any great strength is necessary, it will be found 
most economical to use reinforcing. This may take a variety of forms, all, 
however, serving the same purpose, namely, to take upon the reinforcing 
some of the stress otherwise borne by the concrete alone. 

For bearing great weight a concrete column under direct pressure can 
stand a tremendous load. On the other hand, a side pressure only half as 
great might cause the same column to snap, for concrete, though strong, is 
not adapted to bear excess tension. Steel, on the other hand, is elastic, and 
when intelligently used with concrete, imparts sufficient of this elasticity to 
make concrete the ideal building material for strength. 

Reinforcing may be obtained in two general types, the ordinary steel bar 
and the wire mesh. It will be found most convenient, where a large 
amount of reinforcing is used, to use the steel bar. Where less reinforcing 
is required, wire mesh gives it in a very easily handled shape. 

Bars. — Although round bars of the required size can be obtained from 
almost any blacksmith or hardware shop, these bars may not have the 
qualities most desired for concrete reinforcement. It will be found most 
satisfactory to purchase the bars from a company making a specialty of this 
class of work. 

Wire. — Wire can be obtained either straight or in mesh form. For such 
work as fence-posts it is, of course, necessary to purchase it straight and tie 
it together in the sizes desired. For work where mesh form can be used, it 
will be found most convenient to handle it in this form. 

Expanded metal lath comes from the manufacturer cut to size and shape 
desired. It is peculiarly adapted to plastering and stucco work. Being 
procurable in any size or shape desired, makes it extremely simple to 
handle. It may be attached to wooden studding or steel strips, the latter 
being preferable as the more permanent type of construction. 

Concrete Work in Cold Weather. — In general, concrete work in cold 
weather will be more expensive than the same work done in mild weather, 
because of the extra care needed to protect the work both while it is being 
carried on and while the concrete is curing. 

So much spare time is given the farmer during cold weather, however, 
that the difference in cost may be more than counterbalanced. 

Two things are necessary to the setting of the concrete — moisture and 
heat. Under ordinary circumstances concrete will provide its own heat, so 
that the worker need care only to make sure there is sufficient moisture 
present. But in cold weather it frequently happens that the low tempera- 

15 







] y' ■■:■:' 



,. ■:<.-■■ 



4. Heating of materials in cold weather. The aggregates are so placed as to be easily shoveled 

next to the heater. 



ture so chills the concrete that its setting is retarded, even when the tem- 
perature is not sufficiently low to freeze the water and prevent its incorpora- 
tion with the cement into concrete. 

The general opinion is that concrete will not be damaged by freezing if it 
has had forty-eight hours to harden before freezing, although the freezing, 
of course, does the concrete no good. Alternate freezing and thawing at 
short intervals is very injurious, as the hardening process should be con- 
tinuous. 

Two methods are employed to prevent the freezing of concrete, one being 
to lower the temperature at which the water with which the concrete is 
mixed will freeze, the second being to heat the materials which go to make 
the concrete and then to protect the work until concrete has reached its full 
strength. 

The least expensive way to obtain the first result is by the use of ordinary 
salt. The addition of the salt retards the setting, so that the concrete takes 
longer to gain its full strength, yet unless an excessive amount of salt is 
used, the final strength is not impaired. This method is successful only for 
temperatures but little below freezing. 

The usual rule is to add approximately one per cent, of salt by weight 
to the water for each degree below 32° Fahrenheit. More than 10 per 
cent, of salt cannot be considered safe. 

If sufficient precautions be taken in heating the materials and in pro- 
tecting the concrete after it has been placed in position, there is no necessity 
for using salt. In fact, it is as well to keep away as much as possible from 
using it, as there is always a possibility that, through carelessness, an ex- 
cessive amount be used. Care should be taken never to use it in reinforced 
ivork because of the action of the salt on the reinforcing. 

Everything considered, it is far better to heat the materials than to use 
salt. 

It is unnecessary, in heating the materials, to use any complicated appli- 
ances, although a small heating furnace is undoubtedly an advantage. An 

16 



old iron pipe or boiler a foot or more in diameter and six to ten feet long will 
make a very serviceable heater. One can also be built of a few concrete 
blocks and an iron plate or sheet of corrugated steel, although this is not as 
handy for heating in large quantities. Whatever style you use, be sure that 
you have one for the sand and one for the gravel, so that they may be heated 
simultaneously. Too great heat is apt to make the stone soft or crack it. 
A temperature in the neighborhood of 150° F. is a safe one. 

The water is best heated by a coil of pipe which may be warmed by the 
same fire that heats the sand and gravel. There should be a barrel to hold 
the hot water, which may be kept hot by cutting down, as soon as the barrel 
is full, the stream running through the coil until it exhausts as steam and so 
heats the water. If no running water can be obtained, the water may be 
heated in a large kettle. 

The variety of concrete work that can be done in winter-time, of course, is 
smaller than in summer, as it is not advisable to attempt work that will be 
exposed too much to the weather. Work that can be done indoors., how- 
ever, or can be easily protected, can proceed as well in winter as in summer. 
Fence-posts, blocks, slabs, window-sills, indoor floors, and tile are some of 
the indoor concrete work that can be readily handled, while foundations 
and low walls are open work that can still be easily protected. 

All such work should be carefully covered with straw, burlap or some 
other material. If manure is used to protect the work, the concrete should 
be first carefully covered with building paper, for the acid in the manure 
will affect uncured or green concrete, discoloring it and sometimes causing 
it to weaken and crumble. Manure is the warmest material to use, but 
should always have some other material between it and the concrete. 
Heavy mass work often protects itself, the mass retaining the warmth of 
the heated water, so that if the forms are tight, it may be necessary to pro- 
tect only the exposed surfaces of the work. 

A thickness of 10 inches of manure laid over building paper or canvas, 
if kept dry, will protect work from freezing with a temperature as low as 
10° Fahrenheit. 

For outside forms, building paper furred an inch or two from the forms 
gives good protection provided the cold is not excessive. Actual tests 
show a difference in temperature as high as 15 degrees between outside 
air and air in spaces of this furring. 

There have been occasional failures of concrete work, where the inspector 
has been deceived, thinking concrete which has merely frozen has gained 
its set, and has consequently removed the forms too soon. Frozen con- 
crete will often ring when struck with a hammer, and even when broken 
closely resembles properly hardened concrete. If there is any possibility 
that concrete has frozen before setting, leave forms in position even after 
the temperature has risen above the freezing point. 



17 



Concrete about the House 

Because of its strength, durability, fireproofness, and adaptability to all 
shapes and designs, concrete is probably the best material that can be 
chosen for house construction. This should not be attempted, however, 
except by one accustomed to handle such work. Yet there are numerous 
methods of using concrete about the house which add greatly to the com- 
fort and value of the home, and also aid in keeping down expenses. Under, 
this last head they deserve mention as items in the development of an 
expense-proof farm. 

Foundations. — Ofttimes the first step in the development of efficiency on 
the farm is the construction of a waterproof foundation, either below the 
main building of the farm or under one of its barns or outhouses. The effect 
of such an improvement in one building usually is the rapid similar improve- 
ment of the balance of the buildings on the farm. 

Just exactly what is the best size for this foundation depends, of course, 
on the size and weight of its superstructure. The foundation is usually 12 
inches in thickness, resting on a footing twice as wide as the thickness of the 




5. Concrete block foundation, laid in cement mortar. The hollow blocks give a non-con- 
tinuous air space. 



18 




6. Hollow wall monolithic concrete foundation. 
This construction gives continuous air space. 



wall, and about 12 inches through. 
This footing should extend below 
the frost line, and be on solid, well 
drained ground. 

The foundation above the foot- 
ing may be either block or mono- 
lithic, according to local conditions. 
The blocks should be laid with 
cement mortar in the usual way, 
and then washed and coated on the 
inside with a couple of coats of neat 
cement and water of the consistence 
of thick cream, to further water- 
proof them. 

With a poured concrete founda- 
tion the mix can be made suffi- 
ciently dense to eliminate the neces- 
sity of such after- work. Cuts 
showing the two types of construc- 
tion are given herewith. Though 
the farmer can profitably handle 
much of his own small work in the 
foundation line, he will find it eco- 
nomical to have any extensive work 
handled by a competent contractor, 
both because of the economy of this way of handling and also because he 
will have better results from the work done. 

Foundation Gutter. — Foundation gutters catch the water from the rain- 
beaten side of the building, and prevent seepage into the cellar, basement, 
or ground floor, as the case may be. Around outbuildings which have no 
walks they also afford convenient walks in sloppy, muddy weather. 

A pitch of one-eighth inch to the foot will be sufficient to carry the water 
away. Eighteen inches is sufficient width for the gutter, which should also 
have a three-inch depth to the groove running down its center. 

To insure a good bond between the gutter and the foundation proper, 
carefully clean the dirt off the stone or concrete of the foundation wall, wash- 
ing well and thoroughly soaking before the concrete is placed in position. 
The gutter should have below it a six-inch foundation of gravel, crushed 
stone, or similar material thoroughly tamped. 

Be sure that the gutter has a slight slope to carry the water away. 

Floors. — Concrete floors, properly constructed, have many decided ad- 
vantages over floors of some other type of material. These advantages are 
mainly the advantages of permanence over that which is merely temporary. 

Particularly in such structures as the milk-house, dairy, etc., where clean- 
liness is imperative, is their value shown. They afford a permanent pro- 
tection against fire, vermin, and dirt, and also eliminate the necessity of 
repair work constantly required with floors of wood and dirt. 

The various useful forms this class of construction may take can be 
enumerated briefly: as an entrance floor outside a stable or garage, as an 
alleyway connecting such buildings as inclement weather would make un- 
pleasant to travel between, as washing floors on which to clean machines 

19 



and carriages, as feeding floors, corn-crib floors, dairy-barn floors, and so on. 
The method of construction is very similar for all. 

Very seldom on the farm are floors raised above the ground. When con- 
ditions make such a floor necessary, reinforcement must be used either 
in the shape of steel rods or expanded metal lath. 

Generally speaking, the same method of procedure, with slight varia- 
tions, holds true. Even a sidewalk, for instance, is constructed on prac- 
tically the same plan as a feeding floor or basement. 

First make as compact and well drained a foundation as possible. Next 
place the wooden forms, taking care to see they are perfectly level, unless a 
slight drainage is desired, when the surface may be sloped accordingly. 

In sidewalk work it is best to have the slope to one side. To permit of 
expansion and contraction the concrete should be laid in squares or blocks, 
these being separated by sheets of building or tar paper. The usual method 
of laying floors or sidewalks directly upon the ground follows : 

First, prepare the foundation. Dig the bed for the work. If the soil is 
wet or spongy, and if there is any danger of water gathering beneath, lay an 
outlet drain to carry the water off, and so do away with any chance of ice 
forming under the concrete and cracking it. In sandy soil this precaution is 
usually unnecessary. Avoid all chance of upheaval by tree roots by cutting 
out all roots that run under the pavement at a depth of less than 18 inches. 

The depth of excavation for a floor depends on the purpose to which it is 
to be put. The depth of excavation for a concrete sidewalk depends on the 
soil. If walks are bounded on each side by turf, 15 to 18 inches should be 
dug out. Ram the ground thoroughly to avoid all settlement cracks and 
insure a solid base for the foundation. Next fill to within four inches of the 
top with good clinker, gravel, or stone, and again ram well. This is to pre- 
vent frost getting under the pavement. 

Second, place your stakes and outside strips. A long piece of twine 
stretched taut will help you to get a straight line for the strips. 

Third, fill within one inch of form tops with concrete mixed one part ce- 
ment, two parts sand, and five parts broken stone. Ram well, and before 
the concrete is set, add the top surface, composed of one part cement to one 
or two parts good sand or coarsely ground marble-dust, limestone, or trap- 
rock screened from f- to yV inch in size. 

Last, obtain an even surface by working the top dressing backward and 
forward with the edge of a level board, which should rest on the strips on 
each side of the walk. When it is worked sufficiently to fill all the pores, 
trowel the surface even, but remember that too much troweling is objec- 
tionable. 

Blocks should be laid in four- or five-foot squares; lay every other block, 
returning to lay intervening ones when the first ones are sufficiently set to 
allow strips to be removed. Waterproof paper should be laid between 
joints to prevent the sections adhering to each other. Dusting, after the 
concrete is in the forms, sometimes done when the mix contains too much 
water, should always be avoided. Protect the surface against the hot rays 
of the sun and against currents of air. 

Walks laid according to the above rule will require seven to eight pounds 
of cement to the square foot. Curbs and gutters should be made in one so 
that they may bind together, and should be made in lengths of four or five 
feet each; the facing or curbing should be finished with a coating of one 

20 



part cement to one part sand, carefully worked and troweled as soon as the 
boards can be removed; the edges should be leveled off. One barrel of 
cement should lay a little less than 50 square feet of good sidewalk. 

Porches. — The concrete porch may be either of the small doorstep vari- 
ety, simply to keep the entryway to the house clean, or may be built suffi- 
ciently large to provide a cool and shady place to work or rest during the hot 
months. If made large enough, it can also provide dancing room or suffi- 
cient space for other evening entertainment. 

The first requirement of the concrete porch is a solid foundation, the size 
of this foundation depending, of course, on the size of the porch. 

It is best to have the ventilation below the porch so arranged that the 
space can be completely closed in or left open to the air, as conditions make 
advisable. 

The weight of the floor of the porch should be borne on concrete pillars 
spaced not farther apart than 10 feet. These pillars need not be larger 
than one foot in diameter, and should rest on two-foot footings. 

The reinforcement for these pillars should be half-inch steel rods, one 
inch from the surface, connected at distances of eight inches with steel wire. 
Above these pillars can rest the spans for the floor. Between the pillars 
may extend lattice work, thin slabs of concrete on metal lath, or any other 
type of finish the owner pleases. If the foundation for the porch be of 
concrete blocks, there is no necessity for pillars unless the span from the 
outer edge of the porch to the wall of the house is more than 10 feet. If this 
space should exceed 10 feet, it is best to have a line of pillars running mid- 
way of the span spaced 10 feet. 



fSSL 




Besides being utilitarian, the concrete porch is capable of very pleasing appearance. 
Design of house and contour of ground decide whether angles or curves be used. 

21 




8 and 9. The upper and lower views illus- 
trate the possible range of concrete stairway 
construction from utter simplicity to compli- 
cated design. 




Upon the spans across the pillars 
rests the floor, which is reinforced 
with 3/g-inch steel bars spaced on 
six-inch centers % inch from the 
bottom surface. The floor can be 
molded in slabs which are afterward 
placed in position, or can be poured 
already in position. 

The style of porch floor just out- 
lined is the more complicated type 
of construction. If the porch be a 
very low one, the porch floor may 
be laid directly on a foundation 
of gravel, crushed stone, or some 
similar substance without the use 
of any pillars or other supports. 

A concrete porch is easily kept 
clean, does not wear out, and never 
needs replacing. 

Steps. — As concrete is far more 
easily handled and less expensive 
than stone and yet has its durabil- 
ity, and as concrete is far stronger 
and more durable than wood and 
yet costs but little more, it has 
proved itself the logical material 
for stairways and steps, the places 
in a house or other building which 
receive the most constant and ex- 
acting wear. 

There are three main types of 
reinforced concrete stairways: the 
all-beam, the girder-and-slab, and 
all-slab types. Of course, concrete 
slabs can be molded and laid similar 
to stone slabs, but there is nothing 
gained by this method of construc- 
tion, while the strength of mono- 
lithic work is lost. By having 
the stairway thoroughly reinforced 
and monolithic in character, any 
strain is divided and so more easily 
borne. 

The all-beam type is the strongest 
and best, but also the most expen- 
sive, as the entire stairway must be 
poured at once, necessitating com- 
plete forms instead of mere sec- 
tional forms. 

This style of construction con- 
sists of two girders with cross-beams 



22 



that form the steps. Assuming a stairway six feet wide with a 14-foot 
flight or girder length, reinforcing should be with one-inch rods in girder 
and j^-inch rods in the beam, the beam rods being looped around the 
girder rods. The rods in the girders are also looped with loops made 
from three strands of No. 4 common annealed wire, the loops being two feet 
apart. 

The girder-and-slab type of stairway, next to the all-beam type, is the 
strongest and is most commonly used. The steps in this type add load to 
the stairway, but no strength, all the strength lying in the reinforced girder 
and slab at the base. 

The all-slab type is the easiest to build, as the reinforcing is placed alto- 
gether in the slab (rods running both ways), and as the steps may be 
added after the slab is built, this is the commonest method of construction. 

In both the girder-and-slab and all-slab types the strain, instead of being 
equally divided throughout the structure, centers at the narrowest point in 
the topmost step. To strengthen this point bent rods should be used to 
project into the slab several feet and tie into the cross-beam or pass on into 
the concrete floor. 

Any carpenter can build the forms required for any of these styles of 
construction, the outer tread of the step overlapping being beveled, 
rounded, or slanting back as taste dictates, though the square step is best 
when it is to be covered with wood or slate. The slant step is best for steep 
flights. Never use weaker concrete than one part cement, two parts 
sharp sand, and three parts fine gravel or crushed stone. For the all-slab 
stairway space lengthwise and crosswise on 12-inch centers; for girder-and- 




10. The outdoor step of concrete offers, in the making, a very pleasing method of entrance to 

the home. 

23 





11. Home-made forms, a little care in mixing materials, and the cellar has permanent pro- 
tection in its entrance. This is a small investment that may mean large returns in health 

and comfort. 

slab space on 16-inch centers lengthwise and 8-inch centers crosswise. 
All cross-rods should be wired together at their intersection. 

Cellar Hatchways. — Wooden cellarways receive such constant wear and 
rough usage that they seldom are in good condition, either being so broken 
as to let the weather in and cause a damp cellar, or having one or more 
steps broken, causing inconvenience in carrying anything to or from the 
cellar. 

Because of their position below the surface of the ground wooden cellar 
steps are constantly damp and soon rot, requiring the expense and trouble 
of constant renewal. The possible personal danger to any one carrying a 
heavy load up or down rotted wooden cellar steps can hardly be overesti- 
mated. 

Concrete cellar steps and hatchways are safe and permanent. The steps 
can be adapted to any size or style personal taste dictates or the space 
available makes necessary. The door of the cellar usually limits the depth 
of the steps, while the depth of the cellar decides the height of the risers. 

The methods of building hatchways for either new or old cellars are very 
similar. With an allowance for a three-foot landing at the bottom of the 
stairs excavate the opening to the width of steps desired plus one foot. This 
extra width is for a six-inch thickness of concrete wall on each side. The 
steps themselves have a rise of six and a tread of nine inches. Beneath the 
steps proper is a four-inch thickness of concrete. Therefore provide for 
this thickness in sloping the ground upward from the landing to the top of 
the stairs. Extend the trenches for the side and end walls one foot below 
the concrete of the steps. As forms choose two one- by twelve-inch boards 
and notch them as though they were to be used as "horses" to support 
wooden steps of the same dimensions as those of concrete. Place the 
notched edges down with the ends fixed at the top and bottom of the stairs. 
To mold the rise of the concrete steps use one- by six-inch boards 3 feet 10 
inches long, which are secured to the forms by means of nails and wooden 
cleats. 



24 



With the forms firmly fixed in position, fill the mold for the bottom step, 
and the space back of it, with concrete proportioned one bag of Portland 
cement to two cubic feet of sand to four cubic feet of crushed rock. If 
gravel is used, mix the concrete one part cement to two parts sand and four 
parts pebbles. Bring the concrete in each step to the top of the riser, and 
finish the surface with merely a wooden float. Continue the work upward 
until all the steps are finished. At the top of the stairs tie the apron foun- 
dation to the side walls by means of old iron rods embedded in the concrete 
and extending around the corners. This will prevent possible heaving and 
cracking by frost. 

The side forms of the six-inch walls are then erected and are thoroughly 
cross-braced against each other. For these forms use one-inch siding on 
two- by four-inch studding, spaced two feet apart. The walls can be carried 
to any height desired, so as to give the cellar doors sufficient slope for shed- 
ding rain-water. Above the ground line, outside forms must be provided. 
Fill the walls with concrete mushy wet. Before the concrete sets, bolts are 
placed (heads down and washered) in the top of the side walls for holding 
the wooden sills to which the cellar doors are hinged. After two or four 
days the forms can be removed. Connect up the drain in the landing and 
lay the landing floor. 

The eight cellar steps of the hatchway shown in the illustration have a 
tread of nine inches, a rise of six inches, and a length of four feet. The 
clear height of the doorway in the cellar wall is six feet six inches. The 
landing at the top of the steps is three by four feet and has a four-inch con- 
crete floor. This same thickness of concrete lies under the steps proper. 
The side walls were built as described above. For this improvement there 
were required the following quantities of materials : 

Crushed rock 2 3^ cubic yards 

Sand 1/4 cubic yards 

Portland cement 12 bags 




12. A later view of the eellarway shown under construction on the opposite page, 
which hold the hinges of the door were placed in the fresh concrete. 

25 



The bolts 



For improving old 
cellar hatchways it is 
frequently necessary 
to fill with earth and 
gravel so as to provide 
the earthen slope for 
the concrete steps. 
Such filling must be 
thoroughly tamped 
into place and should 
be water-soaked and 
allowed to settle be- 
fore the steps are 
built. 

Concrete steps, un- 
like other kinds, be- 
come stronger with 
age. They are per- 
fectly safe under the 
heaviest of loads. 
Moreover, besides be- 
ing water-tight, they 
keep out rats, mice, 
and other obnoxious 
vermin. 

Fireplaces. — Com- 
paratively recent has 
been the use of con- 
crete for fireplaces, 
but with the return- 
ing demand of home- 
owners for fireplaces 
has come the use of 
this material. 

Unless the fireplace 
is to be one which 
must withstand excessive heat, its lining with fire-brick is a rather unneces- 
sary precaution. If desired, it may be constructed of cinder concrete, as 
this resists the action of fire much better. 

The outer surface and mantel of the fireplace may be inlaid with stones or 
tile in patterns, or may be finished in plastic form, as the owner wishes. 

There is such variety in size and style that it is impossible to lay down 
any general directions. 

Chimneys. — The old-fashioned fireplace chimney of brick at one end of 
the house is picturesque, but bricks, except when laid in cement mortar, are 
apt to work loose and fall out, proving a fire menace to the home. 

The chimney is a necessity and also a danger to the house. Its construc- 
tion should be of some material fireproof in itself, and not apt, through the 
action of fire or passage of time, to lose its fireproof qualities and expose the 
house in which it is to the danger of flames. 

Either concrete block or monolithic construction may be used. If blocks 

26 




-.'...■.'... 



13. A very quaint and permanently fireproof method of han- 
dling the fireplace. 



are used, the flat-surfaced ones will give a more pleasing appearance than 
those with a beveled edge or imitation stone effect. If monolithic con- 
struction be used, cinder concrete is sufficiently strong and is a better heat 
resistant than concrete made of such aggregates as are affected by heat. 

The reinforcing for the chimney should be triangle mesh or expanded 
metal lath, supplemented by steel rods in each corner of the chimney. 

For specially shaped chimneys special forms will be required. For ordi- 
nary chimneys quite simple forms will do. 

Chimney Caps. — Where a brick chimney is already installed and giving 
good service, it would be a mistake to tear it out and install a concrete one. 
Longer life will be given the brick chimney, however, if it be topped with a 
concrete cap. This may be molded on the ground in any shape desired 
and later placed in position. 

A simple style of cap, but pleasing in appearance, is one extending two 
inches beyond the chimney on each side, six inches in depth, beveling from 
halfway up the side to an oblong four inches smaller than the outside meas- 
urements of the chimney. 

Forms should be well greased before being filled with concrete. The 
concrete should be left in the forms and kept thoroughly moistened for 
three days. After this it can be placed on the chimney. Small mesh wire 
placed near the outer surface of the bevel and side adds to the strength of 
the cap. 

Gutters. — Foundation gutters running around the circumference of the 
house or other structure have already been mentioned on page 19. 

It is worth while to have also small gutters running away from the house, 
connecting with the gutter-pipes from the eaves, to carry away any excess 
which the cistern cannot handle. If there is a walk running around the 
house, these gutters can be incorporated as a part of the walk. 

The gutters should be from 8 to 12 inches in width, with about a two- 
inch hollow in the center. Their discharge should be sufficiently far from 
the house to carry the water well away from the foundation. 

Cisterns. — The best water obtainable for washing purposes, and many 
physicians say for drinking purposes as well, is rain water. Those who 
make no provision for saving what rain they have are paying small heed to 
comfort or economy. The cistern is the logical thing for any one having 
any extent of roof surface. 

The cistern may be above ground or below, the latter being the more 
common type, although, if arrangements can be made to raise the water 
sufficiently high above ground, it will supply its own pressure to carry it to 
the various parts of the house. This can be accomplished by the installa- 
tion of a small engine, but resolves practically into the construction of a 
ground-level cistern with a raised tank to which the cistern water is ele- 
vated. 

Underground Cistern. — The circular type of cistern is the most econom- 
ical from the point of quantity of materials used for a given capacity. It is 
also the strongest type and the one least apt to develop cracks. If con- 
structed of concrete, it presents a smooth, even surface which can be easily 
cleaned. 

As a concrete cistern properly constructed will last forever, too much care 
cannot be taken in building it. Where such a course is possible, it is well 
worth while to obtain the services of some silo contractor to build the cistern 

27 




14. An above-ground cistern that supplies all the requirements of a large home. By following 
the same general lines as the house, the cistern improves the property's appearance. 



with his forms. Where this is impossible, the cistern can be constructed 
by the owner using the following method : 

First, decide on the capacity you wish your cistern to be, making plenty 
of allowance for a possible increase of water supply. Then figure out what 
diameter and depth will be required, and make your excavation. The 
circle for the excavation can be marked with a simple sweep, and can be 
made just large enough, if the ground be firm, for the excavation to 
make the outer form of the wall. The excavation should be well below the 
frost line. If the soil be so loose that it cannot be used for the outer form, 
light boards held in position by stakes may be used. 

The ground on which the cistern rests must be well drained and thor- 
oughly compacted, to prevent uneven settling after the construction of the 
cistern and consequent strain on its walls. Above this should be a six-inch 
layer of gravel or crushed stone thoroughly tamped. Upon this layer of 
stone is laid the concrete foundation, reinforced with steel rods at right 
angles to each other. These rods are bent at the ends to project up into the 
wall of the cistern, so tying the sides and bottom together. The floor rods 
should project at least 6 inches into the side walls. It is best to have wall 
rods also projecting into the floor. 

The entire foundation must be concreted in one operation, and as soon as 
possible boards laid on the fresh concrete, the wall forms placed in position, 
and the walls themselves poured. 

The forms may be of either sheet iron or wood, but should be well greased 
before using, to facilitate ease in raising and progress of the work. Where 
it is impossible to procure the use of good forms and it is difficult to make 
your own forms, it will be more convenient to use silo blocks. An easily 



constructed circular form can be made of narrow flooring fastened on the 
inside to wagon- tires or curved wooden templets. 

The cover to the cistern is laid in practically the same way as the floor, 
except that wooden forms are required to hold it and that an opening for a 
manhole must be kept. 

Square cisterns are more easily built than round ones, and their forms are 
more easy to make, this, to some people, making up for the difference in the 
amounts of materials required. It often occurs also that a cistern must be 
made to fill a certain space which is more easily filled by a rectangle rather 
than by a circle. 

The same style of rods may be used for the side walls as for the floor and 
foundation. 

The only difference in the method of procedure then being that the hori- 
zontal reinforcing of the walls as well as the reinforcing in the floor be bent 
to tie into the adjacent wall. 

The manhole should be laid with beveled sides, as also should be made the 
cover, so that the two will fit snugly when finished. 

If the water of the cistern is to be used for drinking or cooking, it should 
be filtered before entering the cistern, usually through a charcoal filter. 
This filter can be constructed at the same time as the cistern, the dimensions 
being four by three feet and four feet deep. While building the cistern 
wall, lay a tile through it at such a height as will connect with a similar 
opening in the filter wall at its base. Cover this opening out of the filter 
with a removable screen of 3^-inch mesh, fill in two feet of coarse charcoal, 
covering this with one foot of sand and gravel. These materials should be 
changed as often as they become unclean. 

The pipes from the eaves and gutters should then lead to this filter, which 
in turn leads into the cistern. 



^.jjjpssssBsa 






INLET 




£ ^HARCOAL 












--!$&« 





iwK 



CROSS SECTION OF CONCRETE WATER FILTER. 



15. View of typical underground concrete cistern. Two types of filter are shown. The cis- 
tern should be sufficiently large to take care of a heavy rain. 

29 




16. Septic tank which takes care of sewage from a large country home. Although practically 
odorless this is best situated away from the house. 

Above-ground Cisterns. — For small-sized cisterns many people seem to 
like them above ground. This makes necessary outside forms for the 
cistern. An excavation at least a foot deep should be made, and filled 
in as for underground cisterns. If the cistern be high enough, it will 
furnish pressure sufficient to force the water flow on the first floor of the 
house. 

Septic Tanks. — Away from the larger cities, which take care of the whole 
community's sewage, the farmer has quite a problem on his hands in the 




17. Cross section of a septic tank showing baffle boards and arrangement of inlet and outlet 

pipes. 

30 




18. Concrete well platforms keep the water pure and the health of the family in good shape. 
If properly built they improve the appearance of the place. 



satisfactory handling of his sewage. Ordinary draining off into the 
ground is unsanitary and unsatisfactory. The septic tank is the logical 
solution of the problem. 

The theory of the septic tank is to allow the sewage to pass through it so 
slowly as to give the bacteria which form in the tank a chance to purify the 
water. The elbow arrangement of inflowing and outgoing pipes, with 
baffle-boards, walls extending across the tank, prevents a too strong current 
of water. 

The method of construction is the same as that for the rectangular under- 
ground cistern, an average size for a tank being five feet wide, five feet deep, 
and ten feet long. The baffle-boards will be two and four feet from the 
inlet pipe. Bolts may be placed in the concrete walls at these distances for 
convenience in attaching the boards later. 

The illustrations show the general design of such tanks. 

Well Platforms .—The ordinary well with wooden platform, sometimes 
with practically no platform at all, can never be free from danger of con- 
tamination. Often the brick walls of old wells have so rotted and crumbled 
that even below the surface of the ground there is great danger of the water 
becoming impure. One solution to both these troubles is a concrete lining 
and platform. 

The reinforcing required for this well platform and the well walls depends 
on the size of the well. 

Remove the brick of the wall down to dense clay — usually this is not 
more than six feet. If the earth wall holds its place, it may be used as the 
outside form for the lining, simply needing an inside form. But if the earth 
shows signs of crumbling, before taking out the brick, dig back the ground 
to the necessary depth and use an outside form. The inner form will be 
circular or rectangular, as the original shape of the well. 

The same type of form may be used on the interior of the well as for the 
interior of the underground circular cistern. If the outer wall of the exca- 
vation be firm it can be used as a form. 

31 




19. The concrete benches of this greenhouse help keep the earth moist, and never wear out. 
Openings in their bottoms permit the warmth from the pipes to enter. 



Greenhouses. — The small greenhouse can be utilized for profit as well as 
pleasure. Beautiful flowers, ferns, and foliage plants can be grown through 
the winter at the same time with lettuce, radishes, and other vegetables. 
Your regular truck garden can also be given a much earlier start by pre- 
paring the tomato plants, cabbages, and other similar plants in the green- 
house. 

By building this greenhouse as a lean-to, expense is kept down to a rea- 
sonable figure, and further protection is afforded it from waste of heat. 
The lean-to should be on the south side of the building. The foundation 
can be best made from concrete blocks on a concrete base. This wall 
should be three feet high and extend below frost line. A sill is fastened on 
top of the blocks by bolts placed at intervals, the heads being held with 
strips of metal put in between the first and second tiers of blocks. 

The posts are fitted on top at the proper distance for the glass panes, each 
post being rabbeted on one edge for the glass to set in and to hold the putty. 
A plate with the top edge dressed is nailed on top of the post. Rafters 
rabbeted the same as the post are cut with the proper slope to the side of 
the house. The ridge has a cap fitted watertight to the building, to keep 
the rain or snow from running down the wall on the inside. Ventilation 
sashes are hinged at the top on the roof part, also at the top of the wall part. 
The illustration shows how benches are placed. These can be built of 
wood or concrete as desired. 

Heat can be supplied to the greenhouse through pipes from a steam or 
hot-water boiler. While it is better to have a separate heating plant, the 
one used for the house can furnish the heat for such a greenhouse. 

32 



Mushroom Cellar. — To many people the greenhouse, though desirable, is 
rather impracticable because of the expense of extra construction work and 
heating arrangements. The mushroom cellar may appeal to such because 
of its inexpensiveness in original outlay and also because of the very real 
enjoyment derived from such a cellar. 

Because of the fact that mushrooms spring up in the dark, there is no 
need of good lighting facilities. Any dark corner of the cellar, provided it 
can be kept at an even temperature, will be satisfactory. The shelves can 
be arranged one above the other at distances of about 20 to 24 inches. 

These shelves can be made in the shape of racks on which can rest the 
trays for the mushroom culture. 

Four inches square concrete posts with concrete cross-bars provide racks 
which last forever. Although the trays themselves have in some cases 
been made of concrete, this makes them too heavy and unwieldy to handle, 
wood, though more perishable, being preferable for this particular work. 

Another type of construction is with permanent shelves. As there is no 
necessity for moving these, the entire structure can be of concrete. Many 
consider this the preferable type, as the earth can be as easily changed with 
the shelves stationary as movable. Concrete construction keeps the whole 
arrangement clean and sweet, so there is no need occasionally to expose it to 
the sun, as is done with wood. 

Bee Cellar. — The owner of an apiary in cold climates is confronted with 
quite a problem in the winter protection of his bees. The bees must be 
kept dry and kept also at an even, moderate temperature. The concrete 
underground cellar is the logical answer. 

This cellar may or may not, as the owner wishes, be in connection with 
the house. For convenience in handling the hives shelves may be provided 
on the walls. 

As the very days in the winter which are sunny enough to place the hives 
outdoors for a short time are apt to be slushy and unpleasant underfoot, it 




20. A small bench outside this bee cellar provides a place for the hives on sunshiny days, 
door so nearly reaches the roof that ventilation may be provided through it. 

? 33 



The 




21. This concrete window-box was built in as 
the sill for the double window. 



will be found a good plan to con- 
struct a low bench just outside the 
doorway of the cellar on which the 
hives may be set for an hour or two 
on sunshiny days. 

The walls of the cellar should be 
about five inches thick, and should 
project a foot or more above 
ground, five or six feet being un- 
derground. The sketch shows de- 
tails of construction of one such 
cellar. 

Window-Boxes. — During the 
warm months concrete window- 
boxes filled with plants, either 
flowers or vines, add greatly to 
the appearance of the home. The 
weight of the concrete box prevents 
any danger of dislodgment from 
the window-sill, with possible dan- 
ger to those below. Being made 
of a material which neither weather 
nor time affects, such a box is per- 
manent. 

Many quaint designs can be 
incorporated into the structure of such a box, but because of the way 
concrete harmonizes with vegetation, such decoration is really unnecessary. 
A simple form made of boards the desired length and depth will enable 
the home-owner to construct at his leisure as many such boxes as he wishes. 
A 1:2:4 mix in most cases will be found to give the best results. For a 
light-colored box, paint over the exterior as soon as the box is taken from 
the form with a creamy wash of cement to which about 10 per cent, of 
hydrated lime has been added. 

Stucco. — The adaptability of stucco to almost any style of construction, 
and the beauty of a well-finished bit of work, make it in many cases a favor- 
ite form of finish even when concrete is the base on which it is placed. Old 
brick and frame houses can be remodeled by its use into attractive modern 
homes, while entirely new buildings can be finished rapidly when this style 
of construction is used. 

Wherever possible an experienced plasterer should be employed to do the 
work. It may be applied to wood or metal lath, brick, stone, or any other 
building material, though great care should be taken to prepare the surface 
properly so that the stucco will adhere and not crack or scale off. 

The proper proportions for stucco are one part of cement to not more 
than two and a half nor less than two parts of sand. If lime putty is added, 
it should not be in excess of 1 : 3 the volume of cement. 

Before stucco is applied to stone, brick, or concrete, the wall should 
be thoroughly cleaned with plenty of water, so that it is well soaked. 
Roughen the surface, if concrete, by picking with a stone-ax. If the wall 
be of brick, be sure to see that all mortar joints are picked out as much as 
possible. Apply a l^-inch coat and finish with a wooden float if a smooth 

34 



surface is desired, or a float covered with some heavy rough cloth, as burlap, 
if a rough surface is wished. Keep the stucco wet as long as possible, pro- 
tecting it from the sun for several days. The longer it is kept wet, the 
stronger it will be. 

To stucco a frame structure, cover with two thicknesses of roofing paper, 
place furring strips about 12 inches apart, and fasten the metal lathing to 
this. Next apply the scratch coat one-half to one inch thick. The last 
coat may be smoothed with a wooden float, roughed with a burlap-covered 
float, or thrown on with a large stiff brush or a trowel to produce a spatter- 
dash finish. A pebble-dash finish can be obtained by throwing on with 
trowel a mixture of one part cement and three parts coarse sand. 

As said before, the best stucco work can be done only by a competent 
man. This is particularly true of spatter- and pebble-dash work. 

Terrazzo Floors. — Occasionally for tiling a porch or bathroom the owner 
wishes to lay a terrazzo floor. For such work we strongly recommend 
obtaining the services of a competent contractor, as there is too great an 
expense involved to risk the work in inexperienced hands. 

The floor may be laid either with white or with colored stone, and later 
finished by hand rubbing or by electric grinders. The aggregate used 
is marble chips, as a general rule, although granite chips have also been 
used. 

The method of construction is to lay the floor in the method outlined 
previously, then spread a layer of the granite or marble and roll this in. 
The rolling gives the floor a smooth surface, which is still further finished by 
the rubbing or grinding. 




22. Sweeping lines can relieve any effect of stiffness that may be feared in the concrete house. 
This Omaha home shows simple but pleasing design. 



3.5 



About the Yard and Garden 

Around the yard and garden of the farmhouse and suburban home are 
many places in which the use of concrete would increase the comfort, 
beauty, and value of the place. The man who is constantly improving his 
property quickly realizes the advantage of having these improvements 
permanent. 

Driveways. — Farm buildings should be connected with each other and 
with the main roadway by means of concrete driveways. These driveways 
preserve the health of your stock, make hauling of fodder and other mate- 
rials easy, keep the farmhouse and buildings free from the mud usually 
tracked in during wet weather, and save the garden and lawn from being 
cut to pieces with wagon-wheels, as they often are when the ordinary road- 
ways become too muddy. 

Such driveways are easy to lay, and can be done a little at a time during 
the slack hours of farm work. 

Excavate the driveway 12 inches deep to the width desired, usually about 
eight feet, although this should be made wider at the corners to allow for 




23. A concrete driveway helps keep lawn and garage neat in appearance. A slight slope should 

be provided to take care of drainage. 



36 



" : : ' ":-?:, ■ ; ■ 




24. Through large estates and parkways the concrete driveway is becoming a favorite because 

of its self-maintenance. 



turning vehicles. Fill to a depth of six inches with gravel, tamp thoroughly, 
and over this place your concrete mixture to a depth of six inches on the 
side and seven on the center. 

The concrete should be of a 1:2:4 mix, wet enough to pack well. The 
surface is left rough to give good foothold for the horses and cattle. 

Alleyways. — Alleyways between farm buildings may be constructed in 
exactly the same way, except that in place of being crowned they should be 
dished an inch in the middle to carry the rain drainage away from the build- 
ings rather than toward them. 

Sidewalks. — The method of constructing concrete sidewalks has already 
been outlined on page 20. There is, therefore, no necessity for going over 
this work again. A few items are worth explaining, however: 

First — have the aggregates well graded. The stone should pass through 
a ^4-inch mesh, but be retained on a J^-inch mesh, sieve. 

Second — the ground and subbase should be thoroughly rammed and 
packed. To insure good drainage, crushed stone, furnace clinker, or broken 
brickbats of about two-inch size should be placed in first layer of subbase. 
All the roots should be cut out to a distance of 18 inches below the surface 
of the ground. 

Third — the construction joints should not be farther apart than six feet 
either way, and should be cut clear through to the subbase by working a 
trowel or cleaver along their length after the concrete is placed. 

Fourth — the concrete should be mixed only in sufficient quantities for a 
half-hour's work at a time, and should be used as soon as ready. 

Fifth — avoid troweling too much, as this floats the cement to the surface 
and, though it gives a temporarily good-looking walk, gives a surface which 

37 




25. Cross-sectional view of concrete sidewalk under construction. Below the fill all roots 

should be cut to 18 inches below ground. 



will not hold up well under traffic. Smooth the surface with a wooden float, 
and later, when concrete is nearly hard, brush with a piece of oakum or stiff 
brush to remove the marks of the float and give an even wearing surface. 

Sixth — cover as soon as sufficiently hard with burlap, straw, or some other 
material, keeping well soaked for at least four days. 

Benches. — In shady corners of 
the garden, or on knolls which 
present a good view of the sur- 
rounding country, nothing is more 
suitable or apt to give more com- 
fort than a neat bench. For per- 
manent satisfaction this should 
be of concrete. 

The exact size and shape will, 
of course, depend on individual 
taste. The accompanying photo- 
graphs show types simple of con- 
struction and pleasing in appear- 
ance. The addition of a small 
shelf directly beneath the seat 
gives a convenient place for keep- 
ing reed or rush pads for cushions, 
if these are to be used on the 
bench. 

Should the owner wish to put a 
little extra trouble into the manu- 
facture of the benches, they can 
be made with granite or marble 
26. Method of tamping concrete in sidewalk chips, and the surface washed off 
work. after completion with acid, so 

38 





27 and 28. Two very simple types of concrete benches, simply slabs placed upon uprights 

which in turn rest upon concrete bases. 




39 




29. Concrete posts and rails curing for use in fence similar to that at foot of page, 
of curing in this case averaged two months. 



The time 



exposing the aggregates. Simple flutings can be made in the end-pieces by 
tacking half-inch rounded strips in series on the inside of the forms. 

Replacing about 10 per cent, of the cement with an equal quantity of 
hydrated lime will give a whiter and better weather-resisting concrete. 
The end-pieces and main slab of the bench should be reinforced with steel 
rods. 

Unless there is likelihood of the bench being moved from time to time, 
the end-pieces or legs should rest below ground on footings from 18 to 24 
inches in width. 

Fence-Posts. — Probably the most extensive use for concrete on the farm 
is in fences and fence-pcsts. Yet nowhere is there more apt to be improper 



. , ... 




30. This type of fence, though more costly than one of posts and wire, has the advantage of 

being absolutely permanent. 

40 




31. A home-made mold which will give the 
owner durable posts. 



or unintelligent handling than in 
making posts, and nowhere is it 
more important that proper pre- 
cautions be taken to insure satis- 
factory results. 

The construction of posts with- 
out reinforcing is a waste of money 
and time, for sooner or later the 
posts will fail. The construction 
of posts with insufficient or im- 
proper reinforcing is almost equal- 
ly as bad. The proper amount of 
reinforcing, properly placed, pro- 
duces economical and permanent 
posts. 

The size of the post depends on 
the nature of the soil, whether 
loose or solid, and on the purpose 
to which the ground inclosed is to 
be put. In general, the concrete 
post can safely be made slightly 
smaller than the wooden post 
which has been used for the same 
purpose. 

A good wooden post can hardly 
be purchased for less than from 20 to 40 cents as an average cost. Due to 
rotting at the base, failure of some other post in the same fence, or partial 
destruction of the fence by fire or other cause, the post will probably 
have to be reset every five years and replaced at the end of fifteen years. 
Allowing 10 cents for the resetting of the post twice and retightening of 
the wire, the post will cost from 30 to 50 cents for fifteen years, and then 
need to be replaced. 

Allowing a good margin for materials and time, the average cost of a 
concrete post will approximate 30 cents. There will be no danger from rot- 
ting, from fire, or from failure of some other post, for they will all be equally 
strong. And at the end of fifteen years the concrete post will be actually 
stronger than when first placed in the ground. At the end of twenty years 
it will have cost no more than when first placed in the ground, while the 
replacing of wooden posts would have probably run their average cost 
above 50 or 75 cents apiece. 

Wooden posts lose a half to a third of their original strength in the 
first three years, while concrete posts grow constantly stronger. Every one 
is familiar with the sight of old wooden fences where posts are put every 
few feet, new posts being added whenever a weak place appears, so that 
there may be as many as five posts where one good concrete post would 
have been sufficient. 

Concrete posts are attractive because of their uniformity of size, shape, 
and color, and their durability. They give the fencing material greater 
length of life, and add value to any property because of the improvement in 
appearance. 

The failure of a concrete post is usually due to cracking of the concrete 

H 




32. The commonest type of durable fence — concrete posts with metal fencing. Fencing may- 
be attached with wiring. 

on the side opposite the one on which the force is applied. This failure may 
be due either to insufficient reinforcing on the side receiving the stress, or to 
crushing from too small a depth of concrete. 

As the post is more apt to be strained by animals, either forward or back- 
ward, than bent to either side by the stress of the wire, if there is any differ- 
ence in the breadth and depth of the post the wider measurement should be 
placed at right angles to the line of the fence. 

The simplest to construct, commonest, and apparently most satisfactory 
post, however, is the oblong cross-sectioned one with a slight taper toward 
the top. 

An exceptionally good commercial form is what is called the heel-shaped 
post, flat on one side, with a rounded opposite side. This permits of the 
easy removal of the post from the form, and also makes it a simple matter 
to attach wire to the post. 

To the man contemplating extensive use of concrete posts it will be most 
economical to purchase some good fence-post mold. In choosing a post 
mold according to its cross-sectional shape the oblong cross-section is to 
be preferred, with the square, round, and triangular shapes following in the 
order named. The mold giving the greatest number of posts per cubic 
yard should not necessarily be selected, as it is very apt to be one unsuitable 
to the farmer's purposes. The argument that a lighter post is more easily 
handled is not one deserving serious consideration, for a concrete post is apt 
to be handled only once before placing in the ground, and once in the ground 
additional weight is a decided advantage. An additional half -inch of 
width or depth to the post will not add more than a cent or two to its cost 
and may add years of life. 

42 




33. A heavy ornamental post which can also be 
used as a gate-post. 



Two general types of mold are 
on the market, those standing up- 
right and those lying flat. The 
former is more economical in 
space, but sometimes necessitates 
an extra platform for lifting the 
concrete to be poured into it. The 
second type is made convenient 
for placing the reinforcing. Be- 
fore using, molds should always 
be thoroughly cleaned and lightly 
coated with crude oil or soap. 
Kerosene should never be used. 

In filling the flat or horizontal 
molds, 5^ mcn of concrete is 
poured in the mold, and the first 
pair of reinforcing rods laid, each 
rod % inch from the corner of the 
post, stirruped at distances of 
from 8 to 12 inches with wire 
looped around them, the ends of 
the rods being hooked. After 
sufficient concrete has been added, 
two more rods are similarly lo- 
cated % inch from the upper side 

of the mold, the balance of the concrete filled in, and the face finished with 
a trowel or wooden float. 

The mix used should never be weaker than a 1:2:4 mix, and should be 
sufficiently wet, although not sloppy. For at least two days after being 
made the post should be protected from sun and wind to keep it from drying 
too rapidly. If possible, a four-day period would be better. On the fifth 
day it may be slid gently onto a level surface, covered with burlap or straw, 
and sprinkled daily with water. At the end of two weeks it may be stacked 
outdoors to finish curing. 

Throughout its course of manufacture it should never be jarred, as this 
might develop slight cracks which would never show until after the post had 
been in use some time. The longer the time allowed for the curing of posts, 
the better they will be. They should never be used until at least two 
months old. 

The United States Government has published a Farm Bulletin No. 403 
on fence-post construction, entitled "Concrete Fence Posts." This bulle- 
tin can be obtained free on application to the Agricultural Department or 
to your local Congressman. 

Gate-Posts. — Gate-posts may be made in the same general way as fence- 
posts. As they, with corner posts, generally bear a heavier strain than 
ordinary line posts, they should be of more solid construction, be more 
strongly reinforced, and rest on some sort of a foundation or base. 

Gate-posts may be either monolithic or block, the block posts being laid, 
of course, simply as an ordinary brick post is laid. The monolithic post, 
however, gives an opportunity for greater variety of design and greater 
strength of post. It may be constructed of very severe and simple style, 

43 




34. A combination concrete and brick post, showing a rather unusual treatment, 
method of handling is suitable for large country estates. 



This 



or be more or less decorative in design. It may be constructed in horizon- 
tal molds, as the ordinary fence-post, or molded directly in position. Pro- 
vided the post is not so heavy as to be difficult to handle properly, better 
results will usually be obtained by molding it horizontally and then raising 
to position. The accompanying views show possible treatments of gate- 
posts. Size and design are governed by the nature of the estate on which 
they are to be used. 

Hitching-Posts. — Though the auto is fast displacing the horse, even in 
rural districts, it is still well worth while for the owner of any fine shade 
trees to protect these when they stand near a roadway by providing 
posts for any possible horse-drawn vehicles. 

Such a post should be made about twice the size of an ordinary fence- 




35. Horse-block and hitching-post of concrete, with small retaining wall in background, 
home-made forms are required in this construction. 

44 



Only 




36. Solitary clothes-poles of concrete — the arms 
are so arranged as to be removable. 



post, having bolts sunk in on each 
side of the top, to which can be 
fastened the hitching ring. The 
sides may be beveled and top 
rounded, or any other style of 
ornamentation the owner wishes 
used. 

Clothes-Poles. — Differing but 
slightly in method of construc- 
tion from ordinary fence-posts, 
the concrete pole furnishes the 
housewife a clothes-pole which 
will be neat in appearance and 
permanent. 

This may be either of two types 
— the solitary pole or the series 
pole. The former is one from 
which a spider-web arrangement 
projects on which garments are 
hung. The second type consists 
of a series of two or more poles 
with lines strung between. 

In the solitary type of pole the 
pole rests on a foundation about 
three feet under ground, from 

which the shaft proper extends about six feet above ground, to be sur- 
mounted in turn by a spike of about one- third the diameter of the shaft. 
Around this spike revolves the series of wooden arms with the cross wires 
on which the clothes are hung. An iron band at the base of the spike, kept 
well greased, furnishes the best wearing surface for the revolving spokes. 

A strip of concrete two feet wide, extending out as far as the arms 
of the pole, furnishes a dry footing in muddy weather, from which the 
clothes can be hung as the arms revolve. 

In the series type of pole the foundation base can be dispensed with, as 
there is not nearly the same strain 
on the pole. The size of pole can 
also be smaller. 

The most satisfactory method 
of attaching the clothes-wire or 
cord to this type of pole is by the 
double pulley arrangement, by 
which the clothes can be fastened 
to the line at one point and the 
line slid along through the pulleys 
so that the clothes-hanger remains 
stationary, while the line, as the 
clothes are hung, moves along. 
This eliminates all the heavy lift- 
ing of a basketful of wet clothes, 
SO tiresome after the other work 37 . Comparison of the solitary and series type 
connected with washing. of pole. 

45 






38. Garden light of concrete in the Japanese style. The method of lighting depends on the 

facilities of the estate. 



A small strip of concrete, six feet long and a couple of feet wide, at the 
end from which the clothes are hung, will be found a great comfort. 

For the person who does not wish to go to the trouble of putting up a 
pulley system for the clothes-line, a simple eye-bolt embedded in the con- 
crete, between six and six and one-half feet above ground, is the best means 
of attaching the line. 

The illustrations show the method of construction of these two types of 
clothes-pole. The reinforcing consists of ^/g-inch rods placed one and a half 
inches from each of the corners. With this difference, the method of con- 
struction is similar to that of fence-posts. 

Lamp-Posts. — Occasionally the owner of a home wishes to erect outdoor 
lamp-posts around his place. These may be either very simple in design or 
more or less ornamental, as the Japanese post shown in the illustration. If 
they are to be lighted by electricity or gas, they must be made hollow to 
provide for the electric wiring or gas-pipes. 

Such posts are best not attempted by the amateur workman in concrete, 
as they require special forms and skill in handling. When any extensive 
system of lighting is planned by their use, they can be obtained from one of 
the manufacturers of such forms. 

Horse-Blocks or Curb-Steps. — Though the low broad step of the auto is 
far easier to mount than the narrower higher step of the horse-drawn car- 
riage, it is still a great convenience to have a horse-block or curb-step in 
front of the average home. 

This can easily be made in position. 

First measure the exact size you wish the step to be, and stake firmly 
your side forms. If you wish the corners beveled off, tack triangular strips 

46 




39. Concrete terrace or retaining wall. Showing a pleasing method of breaking up a very 

steep slope. 



up the corners. If panels are desired in the sides, oblong strips of wood 
beveled 45 degrees can be tacked to the interior of the forms. 

The forms can then be filled with a concrete mix not weaker than a 1:2:4, 
this mix to be placed in the forms quite wet and spaded back from the 
edge to remove all voids in the concrete. 

The top surface should be lightly floated and brushed as it hardens. 

Retaining Wall. — This may be merely a low wall of a foot or so to retain 
a terrace, consequently bearing little weight, or may be a wall keeping back 
a heavy bank of soil with possibly a stream of water pounding it on the 
other side. Retaining walls are also often used on the shores of large bodies 
of water, extending out from land to prevent the too great changing of the 
shore line. The size and strength required of retaining walls, therefore, 
vary greatly. 

Of the heavy type of retaining wall, probably the commonest is that used 
in railroad construction. The base of the wall in this type is from f to \ 
as wide as the wall is high, narrowing by a progression of steps to the top. 
For this so-called gravity wall no reinforcing is necessary. This company is 
always glad to receive inquiries on any walls, stating the conditions that 
must be met, and will give information to all desiring advice. 

For many of the smaller retaining walls, such as at the edge of sidewalks 
and terraces, no such special data are required, an ordinary eight-inch wall 
being sufficient. This can be, if so desired, buttressed at distances of six to 
eight feet into the higher ground. 

The reinforcing should be horizontal, of quarter-inch rods, spaced usually 
eight inches apart, and located one inch from the outer face of the wall. If 
no buttresses are used, the reinforcing should be vertical one inch from the 

47 




40. Hotbed or cold-frame of concrete, with sash removed to show construction. 

walk gives easy access in all weather. 



The concrete 



inner surface of the wall. All buttresses should be well tied into the wall 
with angle-bars. 

The forms used and methods of construction are identical with those 
already described under the heading Foundations. 

Hotbed and Cold -Frames. — Many farmers, and city dwellers as well, 
while they do not wish to go to the expense of a greenhouse, still wish to 
obtain some of the benefit and luxury of having vegetables and delicacies 
out of season. The solution of this is the cold-frame or hotbed. 

Concrete is the best material for its construction, as concrete is not 
affected by weather, moisture, or time, but will last indefinitely without 
repairs. 

The bed should be on the sunny, wind-protected side of a building. Usu- 
ally a four-sash bed is large enough, except for commercial purposes. A 
standard hotbed size is 3 by 6 feet. Lay out the bed 6 feet 8 inches by 12 
feet 10 inches, the walls being 6 inches thick. Dig the foundation walls 
%}/2 feet deep, and raise the forms above this 6 inches on the south (front) 
side and 14 inches on the north (back) side. Before filling the forms with 
concrete, test the dimensions of the bed by means of the sash. See that 
the sash laps the inside forms two inches on all sides. 

Reinforce the corners with old iron rods bent at right angles. While 
placing the concrete, set 3^-inch bolts about two feet apart to hold the 
wooden top-framing of the bed to the concrete; or make grooves in the top 
of the concrete for countersinking the sash to the level of the walls, with an 
allowance of J^ inch for clearance. 

The forms should be left in place for five days. The extra 2% inches in 
length of the bed is allowance for the three cross-bars between the sashes. 

48 



These sash supports are of dressed one-inch stuff, shaped like an inverted 
"T". The length of the "T" is equal to the thickness of the sash, the 
cross-bar being three inches wide. 

The bed is finished for a cold-frame when covered with glass. For a 
hotbed, dig out to a depth of two feet, tramp in a mixture of fresh horse 
manure and leaves to a depth of 18 inches, and fill rest with four to eight 
inches of rich soil. Bank excavated earth around the outside of the bed. 

Put sash in place, hang a thermometer inside, and let bed heat up for a 
couple of days. After temperature has dropped to 85° or 90° F., planting 
may be safely begun. During midday the bed should be ventilated, as it 
would otherwise become too hot. Plants should be watered only in the 
morning. It is best to cover the bed through the night in winter-time. 

Well-Curbs. — Old springs and wells will preserve the purity of their water 
better if protected by concrete curbs. The method of relining old wells has 
already been outlined on page 31. To place a concrete curb around a 
spring proceed as follows : 

First, open up the channel and drain out all the water possible. Clean 
out the spring to increase its flow. Wall up the well of the spring with con- 
crete blocks laid without mortar to a point above the inflow streams of the 
spring. Lay the balance of the blocks in a 1:2 cement-sand mortar. 

The curb of the well or spring may be finished with these same blocks or 
be monolithic. Whichever style is adopted, a floor should extend around 
the spring, turning down at the edges two feet under ground to prevent the 
frost from getting below the concrete and breaking it up. 

Ice-Houses. — Many farmers are situated near a lake or river, from which 
they can easily lay in their summer's supply of ice. By packing this in 




41. An exceptionally simple type of well-curb that is pleasing in appearance and durable. 
Such a curb is suitable for any surroundings. 

4 49 




42. Type of well-curb common in a spring-house or arbor. The location of this well in a spring- 
house eliminates the necessity of a surrounding curb. 



sawdust in a small ice-house they can not only secure for themselves a plen- 
tiful supply, but can even make a profitable business from it. 

The house should be located where it can be well drained by underground 
tile, and where it will be shaded in midday by the trees or larger build- 
ings. 

The size depends on the number of pounds used daily and the number of 
days ice will be used. The average family consumes at least 100 pounds a 
day for six months — a total of nine tons. It is better, however, to provide 
for a larger consumption. A ton of ice occupies a trifle less than 40 cubic 
feet. No packing is required between the cakes of ice, but around the walls, 
on the floor, and above the ice should be a 12-inch layer of sawdust. If 
sawdust cannot be obtained, an 18-inch layer of prairie or marsh hay can be 
used if it is thoroughly packed and weighted down. With an allowance for 
packing and eight-inch concrete walls, a house 12 by 16 feet, outside, and 
eight feet to the eaves, will hold enough ice for the average family. Its full 
capacity is over 17 tons, but melting, due to ice being poorly frozen or 
packed, frequently amounts to from one-third to one-half capacity. It is 
best, therefore, to build the house to hold twice the calculated need. 

The method of construction need not be complicated. It may be mono- 
lithic, of block, or of expanded metal lath construction. To the average 
farmer used to handling concrete the monolithic is the best to construct. 

Excavate the foundation trench three feet deep and 12 inches wide, of 
such dimensions that the foundation extends three inches on each side of 
the six-inch wall. As soon as the foundation is sufficiently hard, erect the 
wall forms and fill with concrete. 

50 




43. An ice-house of simple but attractive lines. The wide 
roof in part makes up for lack of shade. 



The reinforcing, 
whether of rods or of 
triangle mesh, should 
extend from the foun- 
dation to the roof. 
The outer wall forms 
should project in an 
elbow at the top to 
form the concrete 
eaves. Spaces for the 
doors and windows 
are provided by door- 
and window-frames. 
Above and below 
each opening, two 
inches from the open- 
ing, should be embed- 
ded two J^-inch bars 
projecting eight 
inches beyond each 

side of the opening. At each corner of an opening, at right angles to a line 
bisecting the corner, should also be laid 12-inch lengths of 3^-inch rods. 

The door-tread and window-sill may either be molded in position or 
made in a separate mold and placed in position after the forms are 
removed. 

The floor should slope toward the door to a small depression from which 
leads a drain, with a goose-neck to prevent the entrance of hot air. 

The simplest roof is of expanded metal lath, concreted above and below. 

The forms must not be removed for at least a week, the roof particularly 
being kept thoroughly wet while curing. 

Garage. — The day when the farmer left his valuable planting, cultiva- 
ting, and harvesting machinery outdoors from one year's end to the other 
has passed. Today, in the care of his machinery the farmer is a careful 
mechanic. Particularly true is this of his auto. 

Auto insurance is necessarily high — as the risk is great — and unsatisfac- 
tory, for you would by far prefer the car to the insurance money or the car 
would never have been purchased. Strange as it seems, the great majority 
of autos that are destroyed by fire are destroyed not while running, but 
while idle in the garage; this is due to oil-soaked wooden floors and the 
improper storage of combustible materials. 

An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. When you realize 
that an absolutely fireproof garage can be built for a fraction of the cost of 
the automobile and for but little more than the cost of a wooden garage, 
the absurdity of failure to protect your machine properly is at once seen. 
The advantages of a concrete garage can be summed up briefly. It is far 
more durable than wood, and the floors will not become oil soaked and rot 
the tires of the car. If a fire should start in some tank of combustible mate- 
rial, it will not spread through the rest of the. structure — the building is 
absolutely moisture and weather-proof, is easy to keep clean, and is absolute 
insurance against loss by fire. 

The garage may be of concrete block construction, reinforced monolithic 

51 




44. This turntable serves the double use of simplifying entrance to garage and washing of 
machine. It also affords a handy place to work on the machine in fine weather. 



construction, stucco on metal or wooden frame, or a combination of any of 
these styles of construction. The general directions for work under the 
classifications given in this booklet are sufficient for the person who is accus- 
tomed to do his own work. Best results are secured when a competent 
contractor supervises the construction. 

Outdoor Storage or Root Cellar. — In cold climates outdoor cellars give 
the best and cheapest storage for fruits, vegetables, and butter, while in 
summer milk, eggs, and berries can be kept in them. No vegetable odors 
can be carried from an outside cellar into the house, while the contents of 
the cellar will be kept at a lower and more even temperature than if the 
cellar were under the house. 

A good average size for the cellar is 10 by 14 feet, with a self-supporting 
arched roof five feet above the floor at the sides and seven feet eight inches 
in the center. All side walls are eight inches thick, the floor being four 
inches thick. 

Make the excavation, allowing eight inches for the walls on each side and 
four inches for the floor. The usual depth is about five feet, so that only 
the arch shows above ground. At one end cut out the earth to a width of 
four feet four inches, and slope up for a flight of seven concrete steps, each 
step with a rise of eight inches and tread of ten inches, with an 18-inch 
landing at the bottom of the stair. 

Place the forms for the walls, filling with concrete in eight-inch layers, 
laying all four walls at the same time. If the ground is dry and well 
drained, the only reinforcement necessary is a ^/g-inch steel bar one 
inch from the outside and six inches from the top running around all 
four walls. If the ground is apt to be very wet, however, and the walls 

52 



will receive severe strains from sudden rainfalls, be sure they are well re- 
inforced. 

When the walls are a week old, the roof can be added. To make the 
arches for the roof forms, take a string 5 feet 11 inches in length, with a 
pencil at one end and a nail at the other. On a flat piece of ground or floor 
draw with this a half-circle. Lay a board 10 feet long across this, so that 
the board's ends just touch the circle. The part of the circle above the 
board represents the arch. Cut and nail together two sets of boards of this 
shape and size, connecting with cross boards and reinforcing them as shown 
in the sketch. 

For reinforcing the roof, space ^g-inch rods 6 inches apart crosswise and 
12 inches apart the long way of the cellar. Provide for ventilation, as 
shown in the sketch. Above all, do not leave the work partly finished, as 
this means a weak place in the concrete. 

From four to six inches of crushed stone outside the walls with a drain at 
the bottom will carry away any excess of water that might otherwise affect 
the wall. 

Land Rollers. — These may be of various sizes, from the small hand lawn 
roller to the large, horse-drawn clod breaker used in clayey fields. Origi- 
nally such rollers were made from the trunks of trees, supplemented with 
boxes of stone perched above the trunk for weight. Today all the weight 
can be concentrated in the load itself by means of concrete construction. 

The size of the roller depends on the weight desired. More pressure will 
be given by a narrow than by a wide roller of the same weight. An average 
weight of 150 pounds per cubic foot can be taken for estimating the size 




45. An outdoor storage or root cellar is a comfort, luxury and economy— it is also inexpensive 

to build. 

53 



of roller desired. Concrete rollers of average size usually range from 12 to 
24 inches in diameter, and from two to three feet in width. 

The simplest method of construction is to mold your roller within a tile 
having the same interior diameter you wish the roller to have, and the 
length, minus the "bell," equal to the width of the proposed roller. 

Set the tile, small end down, upright on a wooden platform. Through a 
hole directly in the center of the circle made by the tile insert a one-inch 
round iron bar, bracing it in exactly the same position at the upper end of 
the tile by a wooden bar across the top and cleated to the platform with 
cross pieces. Fill up to the " bell " of the tile with a wet mix of 1:2:4 con- 
crete, and allow to stand for ten days, when such a handle as is used on 
lawn-mowers may then be attached, the forks provided with holes in which 
the iron bar, the axle of the roller, turns. 

If the tile is to be left on the roller after the concrete is hardened, be sure 
to see that the " bell " of the tile is chipped off or sawed off. 

A roller 18 inches in diameter and two feet long weighs in the neighbor- 
hood of 600 pounds. Heavier or lighter ones may be made by changing 
the diameter or width of the roller, or by constructing it with air-spaces 
through its length. 

Tree Surgery. — The storms of the last few years, the numerous European 
insect scourges which have destroyed many of the oldest and most beautiful 
shade trees of this country, have stimulated an interest in tree preserva- 
tion long due. Trees, like teeth, 
need attention. Next to the 
proper protection from disease, 
when its first indications make 
their appearance, it is most im- 
portant to cut and check the 
disease as far as it has spread. 

Trees are powerless to protect 
themselves in any way. The only 
care they will receive, the only 
fight made against disease, must 
come at the hands of their owner. 



REINFORCING-^ 





raMyi^ror^o^ &o^^vrpu^w>^ 



TOP OF SIDE WALL 



IT- 



BOLT HOLES 

FOR. 

DOOR. HINGES 



ESAJLfeHK^aUUi^mfl^ ^ 




DRAIN 



46. Illustrating method of construction of concrete root cellar. Reinforcing in roof runs both 

lengthwise and laterally, as shown. 

54 



Where they are easily accessible, horses gnaw their bark off, lawn-mowers 
often mutilate their base, linemen from telephone companies wantonly and 
deliberately hack their tops off, and careless pruning and neglect of break- 
ages often cause their final destruction. 

Ofttimes there is no external indication of disease. From some 
neglected wound the fungus has obtained a foothold, and, unseen, eats out 
the heart of the tree, unnoticed until some storm blows it down. 

Wood-rotting fungi cannot enter a tree except through wounds. Conse- 
quently if these are kept cleansed and protected as fast as they appear, the 
life of your tree will be practically indefinite. Where rot has already 
obtained a foothold, the following is the best method of procedure: 

First, remove all decayed wood — not merely the punk wood, but also the 
harder wood back of it into which the germs have extended. Particular 
care must be taken that the corners and crotches are not neglected. Gouges 
and chisels, with an expansion augur for the pockets, are the necessary tools. 
In the hands of an expert, a gasoline torch may be used. An amateur 
would be apt to burn the cambium. 

The excavation, like that in a tooth, should be made with the sides slant- 
ing back, so the filling will not fall out, and should be cleansed with a disin- 
fectant such as corrosive sublimate, blue vitriol, creosote, or carbolineum. 
When this is thoroughly dry, the cavity is coated with heavy coal-tar or 
asphalt and is then ready for the filling. 

The majority of cavities are so placed that the concrete for the filling 
must be mixed rather dry and rammed into place. WTiere possible, how- 
ever, it is best to have it fairly wet. Where fillings are of any size, they 




47. These rollers cost practically nothing to make, and can be made in any number of sizes 

and weights. 



55 




48 and 49. Showing preparation and filling 
with concrete of a bad cavity. This may double 
the life of the tree. 




should be put in in sections of 12 
to 18 inches with tarred felt be- 
tween the sections. These sec- 
tions serve the double purpose of 
taking up any expansion and con- 
traction due to change in temper- 
ature, and also take care of any 
strain due to the swaying of the 
tree. Where reinforcing is used, 
it should never extend from one 
section of the filling to the next, 
and usually consists of wire mesh 
or metal lath. 

The filling must never be 
brought out beyond the cambium, 
as this makes it more difficult for 
the new bark to form over it. 
When the concrete is dry, it in 
turn is painted with the heavy 
coal-tar or asphalt and the callus 
or bark allowed to grow over it. 

Windmill Foundation. — Prob- 
ably no farm structure has such a 
severe or continuous strain on it 
as has the windmill. It is pur- 
posely raised to a sufficient height 
for the wind to reach it, so it is 
essential for it to have a firm 
foundation. 

The most durable, least expen- 
sive, and most easily constructed 
foundation consists of four pyra- 
mid bases, one for each of the 
steel legs. These should extend 
well below the frost line, and be so 
leveled as to have a secure grip in 
the ground. In soft ground they 
necessarily must have a wider base 
than in hard ground. 

They should be reinforced at 
each of their four corners by a 
twisted steel bar. This bar should 
be set in from the outside an inch 
or so, and should be bent in an 
angle at the bottom, the bent part 
running parallel with the bottom 
of the base, toward the center of 
the base. The bars should ex- 
tend sufficiently at the top for 
the legs of the windmill to be 
bolted to them. 



56 



\ -.H.^j,,,, 



V*- V>«UV\ ,v«V vV V kwN^X* v>>CV VAVVkVk'vVXVV \V lvl.A.<iVU^\. v 



u\\ 







50. A concrete windmill base gives a firm grip on the earth. The embedded bars give the 

windmill an equally firm grip on the base. 

A very strong and well-mixed concrete should be used, care being taken 
to see that it is thoroughly wet before pouring. These foundations should 
never be built when frost- time is near at hand. 

Swimming Pools. — On the country estate, at the summer club, and, in fact, 
almost every place where live those who enjoy outdoor life, the swimming 
pool is very desirable. Congestion of population is robbing the boy of 
to-day of the old mud-hole. No exercise is more beneficial than swimming. 
The logical thing is, therefore, a concrete swimming pool. 

The size of the pool may vary; at least one end, however, must be kept 
sufficiently shallow for those who are unable to swim— say from three to 
five feet deep. The longer the pool, the deeper can be the diving end. A 
maximum depth of nine feet should be ample for the largest tank. 

The excavation can be done most rapidly by means of teams and scrapers, 
the finishing work of excavating being done by hand. After the excavation 
has been made as nearly as possible the exact size desired, the bottom of the 
pool may be wet and tamped thoroughly. If the soil be too loose, a fill of 
gravel or crushed stone may be put in. The roughing in for the supply and 
waste may now be set in position, and a wet mix of concrete poured to a 
depth three inches less than the final thickness of the pool floor. 

The average pool is constructed nine feet deep at the deepest end, with 
the floor of the tank gradually sloping to three feet at the shallow end. The 
floor should be made six inches thick, reinforced with a heavy woven-wire 
mesh. 

The walls of the pool should be made 12 inches thick throughout. Where 
the wall and floor join, a fillet of 45 degrees should be made to prevent a 
sharp joint at this point. The nine-foot end wall should be reinforced with 
J^-inch square twisted bars, spaced four inches on centers. The three-foot 
high end wall should be reinforced with the same size bars spaced 24 inches 
on centers. The side walls should be reinforced with J^-inch bars spaced 

57 



four inches on centers at the deep end, this spacing gradually increasing to 
24 inches at the shallow end. All the 3^-inch bars should be placed ver- 
tically two inches from the inner face of the wall. The bars should extend 
two feet into the floor of the tank. 

To take care of temperature, there should be placed horizontally 3^2-inch 
square twisted bars spaced 24 inches on centers. 

The side wall forms are then placed in position, and the balance of the 
floor and sides poured in one operation. The mix used should be a 1 : 2 : 3 
mix of cement, sand, and fairly small gravel or crushed stone, in which 10 
per cent, of the cement is replaced by an equal amount of hydrated lime, 
the whole to be mixed thoroughly and placed in the forms in a very wet 
condition. 

The usual design for walls is to have them project three feet above 
ground and one foot above the water-line. Buttresses every eight or ten 
feet twice the thickness of the wall at the top add to the appearance of the 
pool. Steps, if any, should not be wider than two feet, and should have 
riser and tread of ten inches each. If steps are used at each end, they 
should be on the same side of the pool. 

When the wall forms have been filled to within six inches of the top, insert 
at distances of about five feet the ^/g-inch eye-bolts, which hold the one-inch 
rope which encircles the tank to aid in climbing out. In the end wall at the 
deep end sink, 30 inches apart, two heavy iron bolts to which can be bolted 
the iron saddle which fits over the spring-board. Forms should not be re- 
moved for ten days. After the forms have been removed, wash over the 
entire inside with a creamy wash of neat cement; in the mean time cover 




51. The swimming pool may be of any size or shape the owner wishes. For permanence it 

should be made of concrete. 

58 




52. The construction of the lily pond is practically identical with that of the swimming pool. 
Constantly running water requires some arrangement for outlet. A drop of a few inches 

looks well. 



floor with wet straw and top with burlap, keeping the same thoroughly wet 
for a period of five days. 

Water may be turned into the tank immediately after the forms have 
been removed, but the spring-board should not be placed in position for a 
month. 

Lily Ponds. — In construction, lily ponds differ but little from swimming 
pools save that there need be no variation in depth for the opposite ends. 
The depth depends on the size of the pool, as well as on the nature of the 
plants to be grown in it. If fish and aquatic fowl are to be in the pool, a 
larger one than for plants alone will be required. 

For the more common water plants, two feet of water with one foot of soil 
below this and six inches of tank wall above give excellent results. If there 
be a fountain in the pond, there should be an overflow provided, either by 
a small stream or by an overflow pipe. The soil should be either of a sandy 
or a gravelly nature. 

Washing Floors. — A washing floor for the carriage or automobile is prac- 
tically a necessity. It should be sufficiently large to hold the entire ve- 
hicle, including the shafts, if it be a carriage, and should be conveniently 
located just without the door of the barn or garage and handy to some 
source of water supply. 

Washing outdoors keeps all the dirt outside the garage or barns, but wash- 
ing on the uncovered ground would be both an eyesore and an inconveni- 
ence. The logical alternative is the concrete washing floor. 

The method of construction is similar to that outlined under the heading 
Floors, except that the floor should slope toward its own center on a grade 

59 




53. Washing floors for carriages and machines are an actual economy, saving the owner time, 

money and temper. 



of J/g inch to the foot. In the center is sunk a catch basin, protected by an 
iron grating with openings in it of not less than J^ inch, and drained by a 
pipe not less than six inches. Grooves may be formed in the soft concrete 
with either a sidewalk edger or home-made wooden strips. These strips 
should be well greased to permit their easy removal from the concrete. 

Laundry. — Wherever practical, the present-day housewife has a separate 
room for clothes washing, this room usually being located in the basement. 
When the washing to be done is very extensive, as on a large farm, with a 
number of workers, it is worth while to have a separate building constructed 
for the purpose. Usually, however, a separate room in the basement of the 
house is ample. 

The floor of the laundry should be concrete, so that splashing water will 
not injure it, while the stationary tubs should also be of concrete. If the 
room is in the basement of the building, be sure that sufficient light, either 
window-light or artificial, is given. Next, see that the arrangement of the 
tubs is convenient for the washing of the clothes. And finally, make sure 
that the whole laundry is easily lighted, ventilated, and kept clean. 

Garbage and Refuse Burner. — The simplest way to dispose of garbage 
and combustible trash is by fire. A concrete trash burner permanently 
takes care of this, and, if a little trouble is taken in its construction, need not 
be an eyesore on the landscape. 

The main items to remember in its construction are: First, an ample 
capacity, as it is better to have it too large than too small; second, plenty of 
draft, so the fire will draw well, as the matter to be destroyed may some- 
times be hard to burn ; third, an easy way to remove the ashes when the pit 

60 



is filled, and to re- 
move the grating on 
which the trash rests, 
in case this becomes 
clogged. The inter- 
ior can be so arranged 
that one large door 
gives easy access to 
both the ash-pit and 
the grating on which 
the fire rests. This 
door should have a 
draft opening in its 
base to deliver plenty 
of air to the fire. 

The flue for escap- 
ing smoke and gas 
may, but need not, 
have a chimney at- 
tached. The walls of 

the burner should be tolerably heavy, and reinforced with metal lath or 
triangle mesh wire. A cinder concrete will give excellent results for this 
purpose if all its ash is screened out. 




54. In the country or at the summer home a garbage burner is 
indispensable. Again — concrete. 



61 



Concrete Around the Stock 

The disappearance of the mixed dairy herd of twenty years ago, the Western 
longhorn and the Southern razorback, shows the difference between yes- 
terday's ideals of stock raising and those of to-day. This difference is fun- 
damental, being the difference between the farmer who, for temporary 
profit, exhausts his farm without investment toward its future productive- 
ness, and the farmer who temporarily lays out time, labor, and money if he 
can see ahead future profit. 

This attitude is shown in the class of structures erected on a farm. The 
wise man is he who selects material which insures the health of his stock, 
the permanence of his work, and the improvement of his farm. To-day 
there is probably no issue of a farm paper published, no meeting of farmers 
or in farmers' interests, which does not bring out the necessity of healthy 
and permanent construction. And it is safe to say there are very few such 
papers published or such meetings held in which concrete construction does 
not receive its share of consideration. 

The Dairy Barn. — The concrete dairy barn is durable, fireproof, vermin- 
proof, and sanitary. The first investment in it is the only investment, as 
properly made concrete is repair proof. 

If a large number of cattle are to be housed, the stalls may be extended 
along two sides of the barn, facing the windows in the barn wall, and also 
the ventilators in the wall which give them their fresh air. The foul air is 




55. A small concrete dairy barn, protecting stock from weather, vermin and fire, 
is rapidly replacing the old frame structure. 

62 



This type 




56. Interior view of large stock barn, showing method of facing stock toward windows, 
carrier suspended from the ceiling simplifies bedding and cleaning. 



The 



exhausted in the center of the barn by outlet ventilators. If the distance 
between the two gutters on the opposite sides of the barn be left sufficiently 
wide, a small cart for carrying bedding, etc., can be run to and fro for con- 
venience in caring for the stock. Many farmers prefer that this carrier be 
suspended from an overhead tramway rather than run on the floor. This 
method tends to keep floor and barn cleaner. 

A still more recent arrangement of the cattle is with their heads facing 
each other. The advocates of this arrangement argue that the placing of 
cows with their tails toward each other will occasionally allow manure to 
splash even across an eight-foot passageway, so fouling the udders of the 
cattle on the opposite side, and sometimes even fouling a pail of milk. 

Such a possibility should, of course, be guarded against in every way. 
Probably, therefore, for milking cows it is best to have the stock head to 
head. Young or dry stock may be placed tail to tail, as, with the exception 
of the one point mentioned, this is the preferable arrangement. 

As a concrete barn is absolutely permanent, and as heavy concrete work, 
such as overhead floors and girders, requires sufficient reinforcing, the ex- 
pense for specifications laid down by a competent engineer or contractor is 
money well invested. For any farmer who does not feel justified in such 
an expense we will be glad to lay out plans for his barn upon being informed 
as to the number of cattle to be housed, storage room desired, etc. 

The general directions for constructing the foundations of the barn will 
be found on page 18. The balance of the directions follow. 

Barn Floors. — Floor construction in general has been discussed on page 
19. A barn floor varies somewhat, however, from an ordinary floor in that 

63 




57. Interior view of barn, showing arrangement of cattle facing each other. Note wide space 

between heads of facing animals. 

it is laid at varying levels, most of these levels having a slight slope one way 
or the other to render cleaning more easy. 

The arrangement of these slopes and levels depends on whether the ani- 
mals face the interior of the barn or face the windows, and also on the posi- 
tion of the manure pit outside. The levels range in the order named: 
feedway, manger, stall, alley, and gutter. The slope of the feedways runs 



-4'6" 



-> l'4"-»*- 



4*8" 



-**6x 18 — x 6x- 



-4'ik"- 



ALLEY 



FEEDWAY 

Rou.r>ded I" 



Drop STA 4", '1 SLQ ^ 




58. Diagram of stock-barn floor construction. As shown previously, either alley or feedway 

may be center of barn. 

64 



from the silo, that of the manger from the feedway to the stall, that of the 
stall from the manger to the gutter, that of the alley to the exit door, and 
that of the gutter to the manure pit. The diagram on page 64 gives a 
typical arrangement of the various levels. 

The method of construction follows : 

Make the excavation for the barn floor as nearly as possible of the same 
levels as the finished floor will be, allowing for tamping and a two-inch 
gravel fill. Before making the gravel fill stake out your various levels, 
making them true by means of a taut line and carpenter's spirit-level. The 
slope of the feedway, alley, and gutter should be }/g inch to the foot. The 
stall, which is usually about five feet in depth, should have a slope of from 
one-half to one inch. 

After the forms for the various levels have been staked off, work may be 
commenced, first laying the feedway at the edge of the barn, then laying the 
alleyway in the center and working back toward the feedway. 

The Feedway. — The level of the feedway should be eight inches above the 
level of the manger and upper end of the stall. If the excavation work has 
not taken care of this difference in level, fill in the feedway forms with suf- 
ficient gravel to take care of it. A five-foot feedway is ample when the 
feedway is around the edge of the barn. Some farmers prefer it down the 
center, when it should be eight feet wide at the least. 

The passageway between the rows of cows head to head should always be 
sufficiently wide to prevent one cow from breathing in the face of another. 
At least eight feet is required for absolute protection. The feeding trough 
should also be low, so that there will be a good circulation of air around 
each animal's head. 

Five inches of concrete, laid as described previously, is sufficient. 

The Manger. — The feedway should drop with first a gradual and then a 
sudden drop into the manger, eight inches below it. Give the manger what 
depth is desired, according to the class of feed, and set the forms for the 
manger wall between the manger and the stall. 

If metal stanchions are to be used, now is the time to place the bottom 
socket; if wooden stanchions, the attaching bolts. The metal stanchions 
are by far the more sanitary and satisfactory. 

The Stall. — The usual length of the stall from the stanchion to the gutter 
is four feet eight inches, the width being three feet six inches. Mortises 
should be left in the floor for the installation of the stall divisions, unless 
they are ready. If ready, they may be placed in position as the floor is 
laid. 

It will be found convenient in working on the stalls to use side forms, 
shifting these as the work progresses. By doing this it is easier to maintain 
the slope to the gutter. The amount of gravel fill necessary should be 
placed in the forms and the concrete poured. The surface should be fin- 
ished with a wooden float and brushed with a wire brush. 

It is best in laying the stall floor to have it vary from four feet six inches 
at one end to four feet ten inches at the other, so supplying the proper 
length for animals of varying sizes. 

The Alleyway. — This should not be less than eight feet in width, and may, 
if so desired, be made even wider. The surface of the alleyway should also 
be roughened to prevent the cattle from slipping in going to and from their 
stalls. In addition to its slope toward the door opening into the barnyard, 

5 65 



it should have a slight slope on each side toward the gutter to aid in cleaning 
the barn. 

The Gutters. — A ten-inch gutter is usually considered sufficient. This 
should have an eight-inch drop from the stall and a six-inch drop from the 
alleyway, as the latter is on a two-inch lower level than the stalls. 

The surface of the gutter should be troweled smooth instead of brushed 
rough, as the idea in cleansing the stalls is to have all refuse carried away as 
quickly as may be. To render the gutter as nearly perfectly waterproof as 
possible, replace 10 per cent, of the cement in the mix with an equal amount 
of hydrated lime. 

For dairy barns of any size the saving of the liquid as well as the solid 
manure is well worth while. Gutter- traps leading to an outside manure- 
pit make this possible, and also hasten in carrying out from the barn 
unnecessary impurities. 

As the daily washing out of the barn which is frequent in large establish- 
ments greatly dilutes this liquid manure, some dairies have installed a 
double system of plumbing with reversing tops to the gutter- traps. In this 
way, during the washing out of the barn, all water can be carried away to 
the sewage disposal plant. 

For the health of the cattle it is best not to wash out the barn oftener 
than once a day, as otherwise the dampness may injure the stock. When 
the washing is not done more than once a day, one drainage system is all 
that is needed, as the amount of water so used will not injure the liquid 
manure as a fertilizer. 

Lighting. — Ample lighting space should be allowed in the walls of the 
barn. But all windows should have means of darkening them at hand, to 
keep the snow glare from the animals' eyes in the winter, and provide a cool, 
dark retreat from flies in summer. 

Ventilation. — The theory of ventilation as worked out by Professor 
F. H. King, of the University of Wisconsin, is by the exhaust system, in 
which the fresh air enters at the top of the barn, while the vitiated air, 
which is heavier, is exhausted at the bottom. This provides a circulation 
of air which insures proper ventilation. 

The so-called "sweating" and dampness of many barns are not caused 
by the materials of which these barns are constructed, but by the fact 
that in cold weather the amount of air necessary properly to carry off 
the exhalations from the animals chills the barn. To prevent this chill- 
ing the farmer closes his ventilators, so preventing the carrying off of 
these exhalations and causing their condensation as moisture on the walls 
of the barn. 

It is, therefore, best, when possible, to provide artificial heat in extremely 
cold climates, so that ample ventilation may be had, together with sufficient 
warmth for health. 

The best method of ventilation is by means of a duct running from the 
floor up above the roof, the higher above the roof the better. There should 
be one of these ducts for every 25 head of cattle, the interior of the duct 
being figured at four square feet for every 20 cows, assuming the duct to be 
at least 30 feet high. 

This duct must be air-tight and provided with two registers, one about six 
inches above the floor to be used in cold weather, the second about six inches 
below the ceiling to be used in warm weather.. 

66 




59. Concrete manure pit, showing sump well in far corner. 

pit is shown on next page. 



Construction plan for such a 



Fresh air may be provided for either by inlet ducts, or simply by the ordi- 
nary windows. 

Manure Pits. — The value of manure as a fertilizer is too well known to 
need mention, as well as the fact that the greater part of the manure's value 
is wasted from being piled in the open or stored in sheds. When piled in 
the open, manure deteriorates in fertilizing properties and is washed away 
by the rain; when stored in sheds, "firing" through lack of moisture 
destroys it. 

The logical remedy for both these features is the concrete manure pit. 
Government experts have estimated that one load of manure stored in a 
concrete pit is worth from one and a half to two loads of manure cared for in 
the ordinary way. Add to this the fact that the amount that makes a load 
when stored in a pit would be considerably less than a load stored in the 
ordinary way. The waterproof nature of a concrete pit preserves the 
liquid manure that formerly ran to waste. By having a sump hole at one 
end of the pit, this liquid can be pumped out when needed for the garden or 
truck patch. 

For barns of any extent it is best to have separate pits for the liquid and 
the solid manure. 

The majority of farmers find that the shallow pit, though it holds less 
than the deep one, is more convenient and practical. This is especially 
true when the manure is hauled to the fields frequently. 

The sectional drawing shown on the next page, together with the 
instruction given in the fore part of the book, are sufficient for the 
construction of the pit. Remember, however, to place cleats on the 

67 



Ib'O"- 



28' O" 



I2'0 



6- 



60. Diagram of manure-pit construction, sump well at left hand of illustration, 
the slope are to provide foothold for horses when necessary. 



The cleats on 



sloping side of the pit to give teams a foothold. A roof may be added 
to the pit if desired. 

Feeding Floors. — Feeding floors may be placed directly adjoining the 
barn, or by themselves in some field. The advantage of following the 
former method is that gutters may be laid to the manure pit to save all 
manure washings. Also in bad weather the cattle may be put out or in the 
barn at a moment's notice. 

The floor should rest on a 12- inch foundation of crushed stone or gravel, 
its full four- to six-inch thickness projecting above ground. It should have 
a slight slope toward its gutters, so that water will not collect on it. Around 
it an apron 12 inches wide and 18 inches deep should be constructed to pre- 




61. A concrete feeding floor that saves both food and stock. 

and quickly cleaned. 

68 



This floor can be thoroughly 




62. Small concrete feeding floor. It also affords an easy entrance to barn in bad weather. 
This is a good investment for both comfort and economy. 



vent hog wallows from undermining the floor, frost getting below, or rats 
making their nests beneath it. 

A floor 24 by 36 feet has been figured as sufficiently large to accommodate 
50 hogs. The ^floor should be laid in segments after the method outlined 
on page 20. A rough finish with wooden float or brush will be found to be 
the best. 

Dipping Vats or Tanks. — With the steadily decreasing size of our cattle 
ranges, and consequently increasing crowding of them, the insect enemies of 
stock have increased at an appalling rate. Young stock are especially 
subject to these pests, and should be guarded particularly through the 
growing period so that their strength will not be sapped. No domestic 
animal has the natural means of freeing itself from these parasites, but must 
depend on its owner for proper protection. 

The best way to combat insects and skin diseases has been found to be by 
submerging the animal in a fluid which will destroy the insect without 
injuring the animal. Dipping has passed the stage of experimentation 
and is now one of the most important factors in the welfare of any herd or 
flock. 

A concrete dipping tank can be easily and inexpensively built, and will far 
outlast one of any other material. It should be built on a high, well- 
drained piece of land where the earth is firm. If possible, a drain-pipe 
should be laid from the bottom of the tank to the surface of the ground, 
some distance away. 

Directions. — Dig a pit of the desired size, covering the bottom with a 
two-inch layer of well-tamped cinders or gravel. Make the forms about 16 
inches narrower than the pit, and fill with a thoroughly wet mixture, tamp- 
ing well as the forms are filled. If possible, fill all four sides at the same 
time so there will be no cracks or weak joints at the corners. The floor of 
the pit should be laid as soon after the walls as possible. Two weeks should 
be allowed for the cement to set, or a still longer time if the ground is at all 
damp. 




63. Concrete alleyway and feeding floor. A slight slope toward the center keeps the water 

away from the foundations. 

On the entering side should be a slide, with sufficient slant to shoot the 
animal into the pit, but gradual enough to keep the animal from dropping 
the entire depth of the pit. The tank should be narrow enough to prevent 
the animal from turning around, long enough to keep it in the tank at least 
two minutes, and deep enough to force it to swim and submerge the entire 
body. The slope at the end where the animal leaves the tank should have 
a gentle incline and be provided with cleats to give the animal a good foot- 
ing. It is well to cover the tank when finished with a coat of half cement 
and half sand, to make it completely watertight. 

One dipping of an infected animal will kill the insects, but not their eggs. 
With the average parasite a second dipping should be made in a week or ten 
days, to kill the insects that have hatched since the first dipping. Remem- 
ber that dipping is a cure, not a preventive. If animals are allowed to go to 
a place that is infected, or to mix with other animals that are infected, the 
trouble may occur again. It is best to dip every ten days animals that 
show any indication of trouble, in this way completely exterminating all 
parasites. 

The sketch and table given herewith are reproduced from Bulletin No. 
481 of the United States Department of Agriculture. 

Care of Concrete Dipping Vats. — Concrete dipping vats need no care 
other than covering them up or so inclosing them that persons and ani- 
mals cannot accidentally fall into them. Concrete is not injured by 
moisture. It will not rot or rust out. It requires no repairs. A concrete 
dipping vat, built of good materials and properly constructed, will always 
be ready for use and lasts forever. 



70 




71 



Dimensions of Ground Pits for Dipping Vats. — The dimensions of 
ground pits for dipping vats are shown in the following table, the letters 
at the heads of each column corresponding to those shown in figure on pre- 
ceding page: 



Kind 


W 


N 


D 


L 


E 


B 


A 


G 




Ft. in. 


Ft. in. 


Ft. in. 


Ft. in. 


Ft. in. 


Ft. in. 


Ft. in. 


Ft. in. 


Horses 


5 10 


3 4 


8 8 


55 


7 6 


31 


16 6 


3 9 


Cattle 


5 4 


3 4 


7 8 


51 


6 8 


31 


13 4 


3 4 


Sheep 


3 4 


2 4 


5 8 


46 


5 


31 


10 


2 6 


Hogs 


3 4 


2 4 


5 8 


36 


5 


31 


10 


2 6 




F 


H 


C 





T 


Cement 


Sand 


Rock 




Ft. in. 


Ft. in. 


Ft. in. 


Ft. in. 


Ft. in. 


Barrels 


Cu. yds. 


Cu. yds. 


Horses 


2 2 


3 9 


3 9 


18 7 


8 


43 


13 


26 


Cattle 


1 11 


3- 4 


3 4 


15 4 


8 


37 


11 


22 


Sheep 


1 5 


2 6 


2 6 


11 6 


8 


24 


7 


14 


Hogs 


1 5 


2 6 


2 6 


11 6 


8 


19 


5V 2 


11 







Draining Pens. — At the leaving end of the vat lay out the two dripping 
pens with their division fence on a line with the center line of the vat, so 
that the gate at the dipping vat, hung to this fence, may close either pen, 
when it is full, and allow the animals from the vat to pass into the empty 
pen. Use concrete posts for the fences, as they will require no replacing. 
Excavate for the drainage foundation, set the posts, and build a six-inch 
concrete floor according to the directions given under "Feeding Floors." 
Slope the floors one-fourth inch to each foot in length or width, so that the 
dip running off the animals will be saved and drained back to the vat. 
Corrugate or groove the floor to the depth of one-half inch every eight 
inches in one direction. During the construction of the floor, mold around 
the outside a concrete curb, six inches above the floor and four inches wide. 
Where the dip from the floor empties into the vat, place a removable wire 
screen or strainer to keep the droppings and wool tags out of the vat. 

Figure on preceding page shows a plan for draining the dip from the 
draining pens back to the vat, which is much more convenient than strainers 
and permits the floors of the drain pens to be made with a very slight fall, 
so keeping the animals from crowding to the rear of the drain pens after 
being dipped. 

A shallow trough, 8 to 10 inches deep and 8 inches wide, is made from the 
side of the incline from the vat along the edge of the drain pen, or on both 
sides of the incline in the case of a double pen. At any convenient point, 
insert a 2-inch iron pipe into the trough, 2 inches below the top of the trough, 
and run this pipe to the vat. The dip drained from the animals will run 
to the trough, the solid matter washed into the trough will settle to the 
bottom, and the liquid will drain through the pipe back into the vat. As 
solid matter accumulates it can be shoveled out of the trough. By making 
a hole in the far end of the trough and inserting a plug, rain water can be 
drained away from the vat when it is not in use. This also affords an easy 
method of cleansing it. 

72 



-20'0"- 



T 



^^^^^^/////^//^ 




FUEL BIN5 



BOILER. ROOM * 

5-IO"X9'-2" 




l^^^^^mmzsm. 



V////////////////77777777 - A 



COOLING TANK 



MILK ROOM I" 
6-IO , 'X9'-2" 

COOLER- L 

SEPARATOR 



' v MILK, SHEE T — [// 



/ 



STEP 



/ 



65. Diagram of model dairy house from design in Government Bulletin. This house will take 

care of a fair- sized herd. 



Milk or Dairy House. — Milk strained in the barn, or even allowed to 
stand there any length of time, absorbs stable odors and is apt to be con- 
taminated by germs. The best practice is to remove to the dairy house the 
milk from each cow as soon as it is milked. Here the straining and cooling, 
which should be done promptly, can be attended to at once. 

Although the milk-house should be sufficiently far from the barn to be 
free from all chance of contamination, it should be near enough to be 
reached quickly. A narrow concrete walk will make the pathway much 
easier in wet weather. It should be on a well-drained spot, and have its 
own drainage also carried well away from the building. If there is any 
slope between the dairy house and the barn, it should be toward the latter. 
The interior should be so laid out that the utensils need not be washed in 
the same room in which the milk is cooled, strained, or stored. Thorough 
cleanliness is essential. Consequently there must be no unnecessary ledges 
or rough surfaces on the interior of the building on which dust is apt to 
collect. 

Windows are essential to let in the sunlight. They must be well screened 
in summer, however. There must also be a plentiful supply of cold running 
water for cooling the milk, as well as a good supply of hot water for cleaning- 
all the utensils. 

If the milk-house be of concrete, there will be no crevices between walls 
and floor to collect dirt. The whole interior can be scrubbed out as often 
as is desired. The floor plan shown here gives a model arrangement sug- 
gested by the United States Department of Agriculture. 

The method of construction may be similar to that already described on 
pages 12 to 15 and 51. 

73 




66 and 67. Two types of concrete dairy houses. The interiors are smooth and free from 
every possible ledge or crevice in which dust or germs might lodge. 




74 




68. Milk-cooling tank in modern dairy establishment — construction of same shown on next 
page. A bracket overhead would simplify handling of cans. 



Milk-Cooling Tanks. — Often a farmer's herd of cattle is not large enough 
to warrant the erection of a special building to care for the milk. Yet 
the milk should be thoroughly cooled before bottling and delivery. The 
solution of this difficulty is a concrete cooling tank beside his bottling 
table. 

Patent tops can now be obtained which permit the milk-can to be com- 
pletely submerged and yet give the animal odors of the milk a free chance to 
escape through a small air-space into the water. Tanks, therefore, should 
be built sufficiently deep to allow complete submersion of the can. The 
tank should be large enough to allow the cooling of more than one can at a 
time. 

The wall of the tank need not be very thick, as the tank will be indoors 
and not subject to freezing. It should be well reinforced with wire mesh in 
all four walls and the bottom, and should have a steel rod in each corner. 
The inlet pipe and outlet should be placed in position before the concrete is 
poured. The concrete itself should be of a 1:2:4 mixture, thoroughly 
mixed and well wet. The inner form can be removed as soon as the con- 
crete is thoroughly set. The tank should be covered, as soon as the forms 
are removed, with cloth or straw kept thoroughly wet for a period of at 
least a week, when it may be rilled with water. 

The advantages of having this tank built of concrete rather than metal, 
enamelware, or wood are that it will not rust like metal, chip off when 
knocked, as enamel, nor rot like wood. A concrete tank would never need 
polishing, reenameling, or painting, but in ten years would look as well as 
when first built and would be actually stronger. 

75 



These tanks can be utilized 
through the day as laundry tubs, 
and, by being divided by a parti- 
tion across the middle, will allow 
clothes to be rinsed from one rinse 
water directly into the next. 

The accompanying sketch shows 
a good type of cooling vat. The 
raised wire grating at the bottom 
permits the complete circulation 
of water around the tank, while the 
suspended rod above makes it easier 
to lift milk-cans from the tank. 

The grating must be sufficiently 
strong to bear the combined weight 
of the filled cans of milk. The 
bracket must be firmly embedded 
and so heavy that constant use will 
not bend it out of shape. 

Many people also place an iron 
edge on the inside upper edge of 
the tank. 





69. The grill in this tank permits complete circulation of water. The bracket above makes it 

easier to lift out cans. 



76 




70. The interior walls of this trough slope inward toward the base, to relieve the pressure of 

ice in winter. 



Watering Troughs. — The size and shape of watering troughs depend on 
the animals for which they are intended. Horses and cows naturally re- 
quire different sized troughs from sheep and hogs. 

The concrete watering trough will not rot, rust, or leak. It will last in- 
definitely and never need repairs. It is easily cleaned, and has a tendency 
to keep the water pure and sweet. Watering troughs are usually either 
circular or oblong in shape. The circular ones are used principally in open 
fields, to allow approach on all sides. The best ones have a concrete floor- 
ing around them, so that the animals will not tramp the ground into mud- 
holes. The oblong troughs are more convenient around barns and stables, 
as they take up less space for their capacity. 

No matter what kind of trough you build, be sure, first of all, that the 
foundation is level, solid, and well drained. The inside walls should be 
sloping, with the greatest width at the top, so that in case the water freezes 
in the winter the pressure will not be too great against the sides. Hot- 
water pipes can be laid through the tank to keep the water from freezing. 
The foundation should extend below the frost-line, though the floor of the 
tank need not. 

For a circular tank the simplest forms can be made of strips of sheet iron 
held in place by circular-sawed wooden braces. For an oblong tank, the 
forms can be made in the shape of two boxes without top or bottom, one 
fitting inside the other. The inner forms of both the circular and the ob- 
long tank should be smaller at the bottom than at the top. 

The tank should be reinforced next the inner surface, and should never be 
made of a weaker mix than 1:1^:3. After twenty -four hours of setting 
the inner surface should be washed with a mixture of cement and water, 

77 




71 and 72. To-day the ideal hog's home is one of cleanliness and good health. Concrete, as 
used in the hog house illustrated, makes this possible. 




78 



about the consistence of thick cream. When this has dried, fill the tank 
with water, but do not remove the outer form for a week or more. The 
pipes for inflow and drainage should be placed before the concrete is poured. 
Never build a watering trough when freezing weather is near. 

Hog Houses. — The hog, from simply being a convenient method of get- 
ting rid of refuse, has come to be one of the most profitable as well as most 
carefully handled branches of modern farming. But so great has been the 
chance of loss from cholera and other sicknesses that many farmers are not 
making as much in this way as they might. Protection from cold and wet 
and a good bed are essential. Expert hog raisers who have hog houses com- 
bining these two necessities can have their sows farrowing about March 1st, 
but without good houses this is impossible. Sunshine and ventilation are 
needed for healthy hogs. 

Concrete is best adapted for making a warm, dry, well- ventilated, free- 
from-drafts hog house. Lay out the house the size desired. Excavate 
below the frost-line, and place the forms for the walls. If the ground is 
firm, no outside form is necessary below ground. Make the wall from four 
to six inches, according to the climate. It is best to have the floor of the 
pen also of concrete. A 1:2:4 mixture is best for the hog house and pen 
floor. 

The method of construction is given in the front part of this book. 

Hog Wallows. — A hog wallow is an absolute necessity because — (1) It 
keeps the hogs clean and free from cholera; (2) because it prevents other 
diseases, such as mange, scurfy skin, etc. ; (3) because it is good economy to 
provide for health and against disease. 

The wallow should be located near a water-supply, but a level spot should 
be chosen, rather than one where surface water will drain in and fill with 
mud. It is not necessary to build the wallow in the hog yards. When 
they are near an orchard, it is a good plan to place them in a corner where 
the pigs are kept in the spring and summer. The important thing is to 
place it where it will always be available to the pigs in midsummer, when it 
is most needed. 

Directions. — To build a wallow 6 by 8 feet on the bottom, 10 feet long 
at top, make a frame of 2- by 4-inch pieces of the following outside dimen- 
sions: Length, 10 feet 8 inches; width, 7 feet. This allows 4 inches for 
each side wall, 4 inches for one end wall, and 2 feet for a sloping end. This 
incline enables pigs to get in and out of the wallow easily, and is also a con- 
venience in cleaning out. 

Place this frame upon the exact position the wallow is to occupy and level 
it. Use a carpenter's level to do this; don't guess at it. Drive stakes at 
each corner outside, and nail frame to hold it in place. Dig a pit inside the 
frame, making it at least 18 inches deep. If the soil is loose, it will be better 
to make the depth 20 inches, so that a thick bed or foundation may be used. 
After the pit has been completed and all loose dirt thrown out, cover the 
bottom with a layer of cinders or gravel. If the pit was made 18 inches 
deep, make the bed four inches in depth, but, as already stated, it will be 
better to have this six inches if the soil is not firm, which means that the pit 
should be 20 inches deep. Pack this bed well* as it is laid, and thus avoid 
trouble later on from settling and cracking of the cement. You are ready 
now for the first cement work. In a shallow mortar box mix Portland 
cement with clean sand and wet down to proper consistence. Cut three 

79 




73. The hog wallow can be kept clean and healthy if made of concrete. 

should be provided for cleansing pit. 



Drainage facilities 



strips of inch board four inches wide and six feet eight inches long. Place 
one of these on edge, crosswise, in the middle of the wallow, and one at each 
end. These strips serve to indicate thickness floor is to be built up, and 
also make a convenient base for leveling. Lay the sloping end and one-half 
of the floor first by placing a four-inch layer of cement directly upon the bed, 
working it on with a trowel and leveling as above directed. Use a straight- 
edge board to make a series of grooves in the sloping end, so that hogs may 
have a foothold when going in and coming out of the wallow. The cross 
strip at this end should be taken out at the last moment and its place filled 
with cement. The other end may now be laid and leveled in the same way, 
the two remaining cross-strips removed, and the floor completed. 

While laying the floor, it is well to bury in it a strip of woven- wire fence or 
a half-dozen strands of barbed wire which will serve to bind the entire mass 
together. 

In building the walls, cut two ten-inch planks nine feet eight inches long, 
and slope the ends, also two cross-pieces five feet eight inches of the same 
material. You will also need two or three lighter cross-pieces for the top. 
Fasten these together. Now place this frame upon the cement floor, with 
the outside edges exactly four inches from inside edges of the temporary 
frame. Lay two or three strands of wire in these four-inch spaces, and fill 
them with cement, tamping it on to insure a compact wall. Make the top 
smooth, and round the inside edge so that it will not injure animals that 
come in contact with it. 

Cover the entire wallow with loose boards or canvas to protect it until the 
cement is thoroughly " set." After this it only remains to remove the tim- 
bers and wash the walls and bottom with pure cement as a safeguard 
against leaks. The wallow is then ready for use as soon as this last coat is 
hard. 

Feeding Troughs. — Concrete feeding troughs for hogs are a great aid in 
keeping the food from being spilled over the ground or trampled by the hogs 
and so wasted. When built in connection with a concrete floor, they can 

80 




74. This concrete feeding trough is permanent and cannot be upset. 

with home-made forms. 



It can be easily built 



be made part of the floor, so doing away with all chance of being overturned. 
The trough should have a slope of two or more inches, and be spaced off 
with removable partitions, so that these can be lifted and the whole trough 
sluiced out with water to clean it. The forms for the trough can be made of 
ordinary boards of any desired size. It is simpler, of course, to construct 
the trough by itself than to build it as part of the feeding floor. 

Wire netting makes very good reinforcing as an additional precaution 
against freezing. 

If the trough is not built as part of the floor, a simple rest can be made 
with two slabs of concrete with a V-shaped hole in each. One of these at 
each end is usually sufficient to support the trough. To protect the trough 
from being cracked by any blow on its edge, steel rods should be run one 
inch from the edge along each side. 



81 



Concrete Comfort for Poultry 

Of all stock on the average farm or country place, there is probably none 
which shows the effect of poor attention so rapidly as does poultry. On the 
other hand, with the possible exception of hogs, there is no stock which, 
when properly cared for, gives such a high percentage of profit. And yet 
the rules which govern the success or failure of this end of your farm invest- 
ment are so simple that there is really no excuse for not having a large profit 
from your poultry. 

Summed up briefly, the essentials are: clean and dry housing for your 
birds, warm in winter and cool in summer, plenty of exercise, and enough, 
not too much, of the right sort of feed. Uncleanness means the sapping of 
your flock's vitality and is the sure forerunner of disease. Properly con- 
structed concrete nouses will protect poultry from changing weather con- 
ditions and from insect parasites, and also enable the owner to easily cleanse 
and keep clean the house. Concrete drinking fountains keep the drink- 
ing-water pure and cool for the birds. Concrete hen's nests are free from 
vermin and easily cleaned. Concrete feeding troughs keep whatever 
sloppy food is fed your birds from being spilled on the ground and wasted. 
Concrete ponds give your water fowls a chance to obtain such exercise as is 
natural for them, and so enables them to reach their fullest development. 

Poultry Houses. — One objection that has been advanced against con- 
crete poultry houses is that, if improperly built, they are sometimes damp, 
due to the absorption of water by porous concrete. Care should be taken 
that the concrete be so mixed as to be dense, and not porous. One method 
of securing this result is to replace about 10 per cent, of the cement with an 
equal quantity of hydrated lime. This gives a denser and more waterproof 
concrete. 

The house should be located on well-drained, porous soil. If surface 
drainage is not secured naturally, it is best to insure it by grading. A 
gentle slope to the south or southeast is best. The house also should face in 
this direction, to secure the greatest amount of sunlight. The windows 
should be large, for this same purpose, and also to provide as much fresh air 
as possible. Except in extreme cold weather they should always be open, 
though covered through rainy and stormy weather with a light cloth shut- 
ter. Occasionally this cloth shutter is in an entirely separate opening from 
the windows themselves, as shown in the block-house illustrated herewith. 
The windows should be hinged at the top so as to swing back into the build- 
ing and hook to the roof when open. One class of poultry house with a low 
slanting roof has the windows on the south side of the roof when open. The 
only objection to this type is that in winter snow may cover the windows 
and darken the house. It is also difficult to keep this type of window 
weathertight. 

82 




75. An ideal poultry house is warm and dry in winter, and easily opened to sun and air in 

summer. 



The best and most modern type of poultry house is that built on the unit 
plan, that is, with separate buildings or sections for each flock of 25 to 100 
birds. The width of the house seldom exceeds 12 feet, the length of each unit 
or section being about 16 feet. In localities where the flock is housed during 
much of the winter, half of each of these units should be fitted for an exercise 
or scratching pen, larger ventilation space being provided than for the roosting 
quarters, and a box being filled to 
a depth of an inch or more with 
hay or straw in which the dry 
feed, such as wheat or corn, is 
scattered. A second box should 
be provided in this scratching 
pen filled with sifted ash or dry 
dirt, in which the poultry can 
dust themselves. The dirt or ash 
should be replaced about once 
a month with clean material. 

The construction of the house 
may be monolithic, block, or 
stucco. One of the last two 
is usually used as simplest to 
handle. If stucco is used, it 
should be on expanded metal 

lath, and, in cold climates, be 76 The back of thIs nest . g a hinged door that 
of hollow wall construction, as permits easy removal of eggs. Entrance faces 
this type keeps warmest and is toward wall of poultry house. 

83 





77. A muslin curtain above the windows gives constant access to fresh air. The windows 

themselves hinge in against the roof. 



most moisture-proof. The foundation should be a thoroughly drained one 
of coarse gravel. Prepared roofing is preferable to wooden shingles, as the 
roof need not then be so steep. Cement shingles are still better for resist- 
ing the weather and are far more permanent. The owner must decide for 
himself, however, whether the additional cost is justified. 

Although the dropping board and roost supports should be of concrete, 
the roosts themselves should be of wood, as this is easiest on the chicken's 
feet. The roosts should not be too large, the size varying slightly with the 
size of the breed, and should have beveled edges. They should be removed 
and stood in the sun at least every third day, being sprayed with some dis- 
infectant once a month. A small runway up to the roosts is advisable, 
particularly for the heavier breeds, such as the Brahmas and Cochins. 

Poultry Nests. — As poultry generally prefer dark nests, these may be 
located below the dropping board, but should be so arranged that they are 
easily accessible for egg gathering, a convenient method being to have them 
with the opening for the poultry facing the wall, but the back hinged so 
that they may be quickly emptied from the front of the board. By making 
these nests of concrete, no cracks or crevices are left in which vermin can be 

harbored. The size of the nests 
varies from 12 by 12 by 15 inches 
to 14 by 14 by 18 inches, accord- 
ing to the size of the breed. 

Drinking Fountains. — Simple 
and durable drinking fountains 
may be made of concrete of the 
style shown in the illustration. 
The form should be well made, 
as it will last practically forever. 
Such fountains keep the water 
pure and cool, and are not so apt 
to be broken through the winter 




78. This fountain consists of two boxes, one in- 
verted above the other. 



84 




79. Helping nature out. The concrete pond keeps water fowl healthy, and can be easily 

constructed. 

as ordinary porcelain ones, although those in the yard should be emptied 
once freezing weather starts. 

For such food as cannot be fed in the scratching pen, small feeding 
troughs will prove a saving of food and also a means of keeping the house 
and yard clean. These are also simple of construction and permanent if 
made of concrete. 

Aquatic fowl, such as ducks and geese, thrive best if they have some 
opportunity of swimming, as this is their natural method of exercise and 
keeping themselves clean. Some method of emptying the pond, either by 
drainage or siphoning, must be provided to change the water whenever it 
becomes foul. A small float attached by a chain to the plug closing the 
drain pipe is the simplest method. 




80. Construction plan of pond shown above. After completion a shallow fill of sand or 

gravel may be put in tank if desired. 



85 



Other Construction Work on or 
Around the Farm 

The farmer must adapt himself, as one in no other occupation does, to 
meet special and unusual conditions. In the city the rules which govern 
construction work are more or less stable. On the farm all such rules are 
subject to change, and even entire discard, both on account of the variety of 
structures to be erected, and the special conditions that govern their 
erection. 

The drainage of a farm is one of the problems to be solved by the farmer. 
Even after his sewage disposal has been attended to, the excess water which a 
heavy rain may cause must be taken care of in some way. Otherwise the 
mud-holes which form in his roadways and mire his wagons, and the jolting 
ditches between his fields and these roadways, will continue to take their 
tax of wasted effort, lost time, and repair expense. 

Culverts. — A system of culverts connecting with some central drainage 
system is the best method of correcting this evil. Such culverts are simple 
of construction, permanent, and quite economical. 

Ordinary planks may be utilized for the forms. The quantity of water 
to be taken care of determines the size of the culvert. For a culvert of 18- 
inch width or less no reinforcing is required ordinarily. When the opening 
is larger than this, however, it becomes essential to have reinforcing, both 
in arched form, over the opening and running lengthwise of the culvert. 

For very small culverts inside forms can be dispensed with by using terra- 
cotta pipe as the form and leaving it in position after the job is completed. 

Larger culverts demand more care in their construction. 

The mixture should be a 1:2:4 one for the reinforced part of the 
structure, a 1:2)^:5 one for the walls, and a 1:3:6 mixture for the foot- 
ings. 

Unless several culverts are to be built, the amount of work would hardly 
justify the expense of a mixer, although this will make the work of con- 
struction much easier and quicker, as well as make the concrete of more 
uniform strength. 

Immediately after mixing, the concrete should be placed in position, in 
layers of not over six inches in thickness, and tamped until water flushes to 
the surface. Concrete should never be deposited in running water, as the 
fine particles of cement would be washed away before they had a chance to 
crystallize. When deposited in still water, a chute should be used. 

Forms should be of selected lumber, of even thickness, free from flaws of 
any kind. They should be built true to dimensions and thoroughly braced 
to prevent displacement under the weight of concrete. They should be 
thoroughly wet inside before the concrete is placed in them. Forms for the 
abutment and walls should not be removed for from one to three days, while 

86 






81. Method of placing reinforcing in small culvert or bridge, showing lateral and longitudinal 
reinforcing. Spacing and size depend on size of structure. 

forms supporting the reinforced superstructure should be kept in place for 
ten days, and in cold and wet weather for twice this time. 

The edges of the forms should be well worked with a narrow flat spade as 
the concrete is placed, so insuring a strong, smooth surface. If any cavities 




82. Commercial forms for building culverts. These forms are collapsible, rendering them 

easy to remove. 

87 




83. The combination of an iron railing with this concrete structure possibly saved money- 

but some day the railing must be replaced. 



appear on the removal of the forms, they should be filled at once with a mix 
of the same proportions as the portion to be patched. 

There are a number of good metal forms now on the market. These 
have the advantage over the wooden ones of being easier to place, simpler to 
handle, and more certain to give good results. 

The reinforcing should be of steel that can be easily bent into the proper 
shapes while cold. It should be free from rust, grease, paint, or dirt, to 
insure a perfect bond between the bars and the concrete. For an ordinary 
size bridge or culvert a strength of at least 16,000 pounds per square inch 
should be required, with a safety factor of 4. 

Box culverts endure the greatest strain on the top slab unless the height 
of the sides exceeds the length of the slab. It is safe to say, therefore, that 
reinforcing sufficient for this slab is sufficient for the bottom and each of the 
sides. Special conditions sometimes make it desirable to add a projecting 
apron to the base, as when deep freezing occurs or when the bed of the 
stream is likely to erode. 

Railings are not usual on culverts, except when very large. Even the 
smallest bridge, however, is incomplete without one. Often the simplest 
railings are the more effective, though very complicated designs can be 
worked out with concrete. The simplest designs are the easiest to construct 
and offer the least chance for disfigurement. They may be solid or paneled 
walls. 

Small Bridges. — Occasionally, to cross some ravine or gully, it is desirable 
to construct a small bridge, although impossible to obtain the services of a 
contractor. When this is the situation, the owner may, if he so desires, 
attempt the work himself, although he should on no account do this unless 
he has had previous experience in the handling of concrete. Under no cir- 
cumstances should he attempt the construction of a bridge with a span of 
any considerable size. 

The safe loads given under the heading Culverts hold true for small span 
bridges. These spans may be either of the arch type or of the beam and 

88 




84. An ideal small bridge — pleasing in design, permanent in construction, 
should be built only under competent supervision. 



Such a structure 



girder type. Without special molds the latter is the simpler of construction, 
though the former is more pleasing in appearance. 

We would strongly urge any one planning a bridge to get in touch with 
some reputable concern whose business is the erection of bridges. Even if 
the bridge is so small that it is not worth while obtaining their services, the 
suggestions they are able to give may prove invaluable. 

Small Dams. — Frequently some small stream running through the farm 
may be profitably dammed either to supply motive power for such station- 
ary machines as are used on the farm, or to store up water for the stock or 
the irrigation of the farm. By this means a large natural reservoir can be 
formed which may mean the difference between profit and loss in a dry 
season. 

The size of the dam depends, of course, on the head of water to be held 
back and on the nature of the bed of the stream. If the latter be of a rocky 
nature, into which the dam may be keyed, all the better. If the bed be of a 
clay or sand bottom, by all means put the construction of the dam in the 
hands of a competent engineer. This company will gladly furnish names of 
such on request. 

The size and spacing of the reinforcing rods depend on the size of the dam. 

A weaker proportion than a 1 : 2:4 mix of cement, sand, and gravel should 
never be used for this class of work. A 1:1^:3 mix is better, in which 10 
per cent, of the cement is replaced by a like quantity of hydrated lime. 

Bulkheads. — To prevent drain tile and the smaller culverts from being- 
covered at their openings by broken-down earth embankments, bulkheads 
are practically essential. These consist simply of small concrete retaining 
walls protecting the openings to the drain or culvert. Their cost is negli- 
gible, while the improvement in appearance of property as well as the time 
saved in keeping the drain in repair are well worth the expense. 

Small Piers. — The owner of a farm at the edge of a stream or beside a 
small lake often wishes to construct a small pier for his boats. The winter's 
storms are apt to loosen any wooden piles driven in the stream, while the 

89 




■■■■,:•■ 
. . . . -.■■:::;:; ■ ' ' ■ : : ■ ■■ :W ; : iife::.':j; , . : ■ ■ ... 

::^ : i^Si>;v: .■■■...■.■.■.■■ 




85. A concrete ram house is simple to build and 
affords permanent protection to the ram. 



constant action of water and 
weather decays the wood and ulti- 
mately destroys the pier. 

The fact that concrete is un- 
affected by water or weather makes 
it the logical choice as the material 
for the pier. Where the pier ex- 
tends into deep water, concrete 
piles can be driven. Steel shells for 
such piles are obtainable from a 
number of firms whose names will 
be supplied on request. Where 
the pier is in shallow water, the 
owner can sink the foundation for 
it himself by the use of home-made 
caisson forms. A simple box of 
wood can serve as his caisson and 
later as the form in which to deposit 
the concrete. 

Concrete should never be dump- 
ed in the water, as the water sep- 
arates the cement from the coarser 
aggregates. It should either be 
lowered to position in buckets and 
poured, or be placed in position by 
means of chutes. The forms should be watertight, and should not be 
removed until ample time has been allowed for the setting of the concrete, 
as otherwise the action of the water will wash the particles of cement away. 
Particular precautions must be taken to prevent this in running water. 

Concrete steps may be built at the side of the pier for the convenience of 
those landing from small boats. 

If boats of any size are to make landings at the pier, it would be well to 
have wooden straps to take up the jar of their striking the pier, as otherwise 
the boat might be crushed because of the non-elasticity of the concrete. 

Hydraulic Ram House. — The hydraulic ram house should have a con- 
crete foundation to make it simpler to keep the machinery clean and in good 
order. While the foundation is being put in the owner may as well go a step 
further and build the whole house of this material. 

The foundation on which the ram rests must be separated entirely from 
the foundation of the wall of the house itself. The method of construction 
may be either block, metal lath, or monolithic, and may be handled as out- 
lined previously. 

Smoke- House. — Practically every farm which raises hogs in any quantity 
will find it profitable to have a smoke-house. The illustration shows a 
seven-foot square one made of concrete blocks. Near the roof are placed 
the iron rods from wall to wall on which the hams hang while being smoked. 
Some farmers have also constructed their smoke-houses circular in form, 
using the silo molds for this purpose after the silo has been constructed, and 
while the forms are ready, on the ground. Most silos, however, have a 
much larger diameter than is required for a smoke-house, except one of 
unusual capacity. 

90 




Drain Tile. — In considering the 
drain tile problem to-day there are 
really only two types of tile — the 
clay tile and the cement tile. The 
materials of the two are entirely 
different, however. 

As clay tile ages, it weakens. 
When exposed to moisture it is 
apt to swell and finally rots away. 

Concrete tile increases in 
strength with age. The presence 
of moisture is not only not injuri- 
ous to concrete but is an actual 
advantage. 

The requirements of concrete 
drain tile can be determined by 
the requirements and nature of 
concrete. Concrete is a material 
whose strength and durability are 
determined by the extent to which 
all its voids are filled and the 
aggregate cemented together. 
Too many people think that the 86. Such a smoke-house may be built of blocks, 
Value of drain tile is measured by metal lath, or monolithic construction. If con- 
the extent to which the voids are crete > Jt s permanent. 

left unfilled and the concrete left as nearly sponge-like as possible. This is 
at the expense of the cementing bond, upon which the durability of the con- 
crete depends. Consequently such loose-mixed, weak tile last but a short 
time and must be replaced. 

There is no tile stronger, more durable, or more satisfactory than prop- 
erly made concrete tile. On the other hand, improperly made concrete tile 
is simply a waste of money. 

Concrete tile should never be made of a weaker mix than one part of ce- 
ment to three parts of sand. The sand should not be fine, but graded from 
fine to coarse particles just passing a J^-inch screen. After the cement and 
sand have been mixed, sufficient water should be added so that the mix will 
pack hard in the molds, and leave a webbed effect on the surface of the 
molds after these have been removed. 

The tile should be wet three times a day for a period of six days, and may 
then be piled in the yard for three weeks, for the first week of which they 
should also be sprinkled three times a day. 

Professor Musselman, of Michigan Agricultural College, figures the cost 
of four-inch tile with a ^-inch wall as running from $14.38 per thousand 
to $16.09 per thousand, the difference in cost being the difference between 
engine and wind power. 



91 



Concrete Roads 

Every farmer is vitally interested in the roads adjacent to his property 
and connecting the nearby villages and towns. Good roads mean actual 
dollars and cents in the farmer's pockets. 

They mean the easy and rapid marketing of his produce, the safe and 
uninterrupted schooling of his children, the greater length of life and the 
greater efficiency of his horses, wagons, and farm machinery, greater possi- 
bilities for social communication — and, because of all these, greater value 
to his property. 

As a result of improved roads in Spottsylvania County, Va., the products 
shipped from that county increased in two years 45 per cent. Dairy and 
poultry shipments increased 137 per cent. Farm values as shown by actual 
sale prices increased from 33 per cent, to 233 per cent., depending on loca- 
tion. 

As a result of similar improvement near Federalsburg, Md., the same 
increase in products marketed and in land values resulted. 

The same story is true of Harris County, Tex., Essex County, N. J., 
Wayne County, Mich., Mecklenburg County, N. C, Sullivan County, 
Tenn., and numerous other counties through the country. 

One advantage of the concrete road can be given no monetary value — 
the increased social life it gives to any community. The road which is 
always open for traffic does away, largely, with dependence on weather 
conditions. This one feature helps to simplify both the labor problem and 
the problem of making the home attractive to its children — and by making 
the community more attractive affects in one more way the value of both 
property and produce. 

The taxpayer should urge for his community the type of road which has 
proved most satisfactory from a standpoint of service as well as economy. 
The concrete road is the road which fulfils all the requirements of the 
perfect highway. 

The surface yardage of concrete roads laid in 1915 exceeded by 34 per 
cent, the amount laid in 1914. And the noticeable fact is that the greatest 
amount of concrete roads was built where concrete, as well as other 
materials, had been previously tried. In other words, the best friends of 
the concrete road are those who have used it most and longest. 

The reasons for this are too numerous to more than mention in this 
article. The main ones are: Freedom from mud or dust in all seasons — 
open to all kinds of traffic at all times of the year — minimum maintenance 
expense, with greatest portion of road taxes going toward building new 
instead of repairing old roads — permanence of investment, the road will 
never need rebuilding. 

To anyone actually interested, we will gladly send our booklets on con- 
crete roads, their advantages and how to construct them. 

92 







87 and 88. Two country roads from Milwaukee County, Wis. As a result of these concrete 

roads, this County has arranged a schedule for a term of years to provide, ultimately, for 

concrete roads throughout the entire County. 




93 



Index 



^ PAGE 

Aggregate 9 

Alleyways 37 

Alleyways in Barn 66 

Arrangement of Cattle in Barn 63 

B 

Barns 64 

Bee Cellar 33 

Benches 38 

Blocks, Horse 46 

Boxes, Window 34 

Bridges 88 

Bulkheads 89 

Burners for Garbage 61 

C 

Caps for Chimneys 27 

Cellars for Bees 33 

Cellar Hatchways 24, 25 

Cellar for Mushrooms 33 

Cellar for Roots and Storage 52-53 

Cement 11 

Chimneys 26 

Cisterns 27-30 

Cleansing Forms 15 

Cleansing Sand 10 

Clothes-poles 45 

Cold Frames 48 

Cold Weather Work 15 

Culverts 86 

Curb Steps 46 

D 

Dairy Barn 63 

Dairy House 73 

Dams 89 

Drain Tile 91 

Drainage of Dairy Barn 66 

Drinking Fountain for Poultry 85 

Drinking Trough for Stock 77 

Driveways 36 

E 

Expanded Metal Lath 15 

F 

Feeding Floors 68 

Feeding Troughs 81 

Feedway 65 

Fence-posts 40-43 



PAGE 

Filter for Cistern 29 

Fireplace 26 

Floors 19-20 

Floors, Terrazzo 35 

Floors, Washing 60 

Foundations 18 

Foundations, Gutter 19 

Foundations, Windmill 56 

Fountains, Poultry 85 

Forms 14 

Freezing Weather Work 15 

G 

Garage 51 

Garbage Burner 61 

Gate-post . 43 

Gravel 10 

Greenhouses 32 

Gutters 19,27,66 

H 

Hatchways, Cellar 24, 25 

Heating Aggregate 17 

Hitching-post 44 

Hog Houses 79 

Hog Wallows 79, 80 

Horse Blocks 46 

Hotbeds 48 

Houses, Dairy 73 

Houses, Hog 79 

Houses, Hydraulic Ram 90 

Houses, Ice 50 

Houses, Poultry 82 

Hydraulic Ram House 90 

I 

Ice-houses 50 

Incinerator 61 

L 

Lamp-post 46 

Land Rollers 54 

Laundry 60 

Lighting of Dairy Barn 66 

Lily Ponds 59 

M 

Manger for Barn 65 

Manure Pit 67 



95 



PAGE 

Measuring Box . 12 

Metal Lath 15 

Milk House 73 

Milk Tank or Vat 75, 76 

Mixing Concrete 12, 13 

Mushroom Cellar 33 

N 

Nests for Poultry 84 

P 

Piers 89 

Placing Concrete 13 

Plastering 34 

Platforms, Well 31 

Pools, Swimming 57-59 

Ponds, Duck 85 

Ponds, Lily 59 

Posts, Fence 40-43 

Posts, Clothes _ 44 

Posts, Hitching ' 43 

Posts, Lamp 45 

Porches 21 

Poultry Houses 82 

Poultry Nests 84 

Proportions for Various Mixes 11 

R 

Refuse Burners 61 

Reinforcing 15 

Relining old Wells 31 

Retaining Wall 47 

Rollers, Land 54 

Root Cellar 52, 53 

S 

Salt, Use of 16 

Sand : 10 

Septic Tanks 31 

Sidewalks 37 

Small Bridges 89 

Small Dams 89 

Small Piers 89 



PAGE 

Stall 65 

Smoke-house 90 

Spading Concrete 14 

Steps 22,23 

Stone 10 

Storage Cellar 52, 53 

Storage of Cement 11 

Stucco 34 

Suitable Mixes for Different Uses .... 13 

Surgery for Trees 55 

Swimming Pools 57-59 

T 

Table of Proportions 11 

Tanks, Dipping 69-72 

Tanks, Septic 30 

Terrazzo Floors 35 

Tile, Drain 91 

Tools 12 

Tree Surgery 55 

Troughs, Feeding 81 

Troughs, Watering 77 

U 

Underground Cisterns 27 

V 

Vats, Dipping 69-72 

Vats, Milk : 75,76 

Ventilation of Barns 66 

Voids in Aggregate 9 

W 

Wallows, Hog 79, 80 

Wall, Retaining 47 

Walks , 37 

Warehouse Set 11 

Washing Floors 60 

Water 11 

Watering Troughs 77 

Well Platforms 31 

Windmill Foundations 56 

Window Boxes 34 



96 



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